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Eating sustainably

Emory University

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EATING SUSTAINABLY:

an introduction to sustainable food

1. Defining sustainability and sustainable food

2. Food, foodshed, soil, and place

3. Identifying sustainable food: an introduction to marketing terms

4. Health benefits of eating sustainably

5. Nutrient content and sustainable food

6. Pesticides and organic foods

7. Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

8. Food choices and environmental impact: meat and plant-based diets

9. Energy and food production

10. Animal welfare and factory farms

11. Grass-fed livestock

12. Sustainable seafood

13. Choosing local food

14. Sustainable food purchasing and the Georgia economy

15. Impact on farm workers

16. Fair Trade

Sustainable Food Committee, Emory University

December, 2011

Eating sustainably

Defining Sustainability Emory University

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Defining sustainability and sustainable food

Definitions of sustainability often refer to aspects of enduring environmental, social and

economic well being. While the notion of sustainable food has evolved over time and continues

to change with new evidence, there is a consensus that sustainable agriculture must be

ecologically sound, economically viable, and socially responsible.

Thus, a broad definition of

sustainable food links agricultural production that safeguards soil, water, and wildlife with a

nutritious diet that supports public health

, and sees food as part of a just and economically

sound society. In this view, a sustainable food and agricultural system is one in which:

 The environment is protected. The health of the soil is maintained, water quality is

secured, the flow of energy and discharge of waste, including greenhouse gas emissions,

are within the capacity of the earth to absorb, and biodiversity is protected and promoted.

 Food producers are treated well. Farmers and all other players in the production chain

have fair, livable incomes, and safe working conditions.

 The food we eat is of good quality. Animal and human health is supported by a wide

variety of nutritious and delicious foods, and is affordable and accessible for all.

 Agro-economies are supported. Rural communities are enhanced and supported, and are

linked to urban communities through small businesses.

 Fresh, healthy food is available to all.

The industrial, corporate food production system prevalent today offers cheap food, but such low

cost does not reflect the true costs of agriculture, including loss of crop biodiversity through

monoculturing, soil erosion and depletion, contamination of water and air, antibiotic resistance,

and heavy dependence on non-renewable resources such as petroleum, creating a less resilient

and secure food system.

Centralized control over our agricultural system limits consumers’

ability to know how food is grown, how safe it is, and whether farm communities are enhanced

or harmed.

4,5

Local, community-based, participatory food systems are an alternative to the global corporate

models in which producers and consumers are separated from one another. A local food system

encourages the idea of the consumer as active participant, or co-producer.

This model focuses

on relationships among the food producers, processors, distributors, retailers and consumers and

increases knowledge about the characteristics of our food.

The development of local food

systems is not only about environmental impacts but also the social and economic benefits it

promotes, which include:

 Diversity of many economically viable small family farms rather than huge factory farms

 Environmental outcomes that enhance our natural resources for future generations

 Robust economic links between urban and rural communities through networks of small

businesses

 Preventive health of individuals rather than focusing solely on disease treatment

 Equitable treatment for all participants in the food chain

Julie Shaffer for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Eating sustainably

Defining Sustainability Emory University

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Ikerd, John. 2007. “On Defining Sustainable Agriculture.” North Carolina Sustainable Agriculture Research and

Education Program. <http://www.sustainable-ag.ncsu.edu/onsustaibableag.htm> (Accessed 4/9/10).

Hamm, Michael W. 2008. “Linking Sustainable Agriculture and Public Health: Opportunities for Realizing

Multiple Goals.” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 3:169-185.

Kirschenmann, Frederick L. 2008. “Food as Relationship.” Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition

3(2):106-121.

Barlett, Peggy F. 1989. “Industrial Agriculture” in Economic Anthropology, Stuart Plattner, ed. Pp. 253-291.

Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press.

Hassanein, Neva. 2003. “Practicing Food Democracy: A Pragmatic Politics of Transformation.” Journal of Rural

Studies 19:77-86.

Petrini, Carlo. 2007. Slow Food Nation. NY: Columbia University Press. pp. 227-237

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Eating sustainably

Food and Place Emory University

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Food, foodshed, soil, and place

“Civilizations have destroyed themselves by destroying their farmland”

Wes Jackson and Wendell Berry

Food has the potential to strengthen our sense of place, intertwining meaning and identity.

Eating locally, learning about traditional foods, and attending to the seasons are ways to become

more conscious of food choices and their implications for the planet. Food invites other

languages of attachment, restoring our lived relationships with place. Tastes of fresh, local food,

together with traditional varieties of plants and animals that are well adapted to each locale, call

forth an appealing vision of people living well and also responsibly with one another and with

the land.

A revolution in transportation and communication since World War II, coupled with agricultural

research and abundant cheap oil, has allowed us to develop a global food system that is detached

in many ways from the soil.

Industrial food processing allowed new forms of food storage,

long-distance travel, and extended shelf life.

The average person has little appreciation of the

land or the farming practices suited to each locale.

Stories and memories are lost as well—and

sometimes, even the seeds and plant varieties eaten by our great-grandparents.

Lack of public

concern about farmland loss to urban sprawl, eroding topsoil, and declining rural communities

reveals a general disconnection from the land. Social indifference to the farmers and farm

workers who grow food echoes our disconnectedness to nature and season.

An alternative to the industrial, global food system is a locally or regionally based system, made

up of diversified farms using sustainable practices to supply fresher, more nutritious foodstuffs to

small-scale processors and consumers, to whom producers are linked by bonds of community as

well as economy.

7,8

Landscape is part of that community.

Consumer expectations are shifting towards such a system. In addition to acquiring healthy

food, many consumers want to know where their food comes from, how it is grown, and who are

the farmers.

They want to know if their own values, such as fair working conditions and

humane treatment of animals, have been upheld all along the food chain. And more consumers

are returning to seasonal food purchases, finding it tastier and cheaper to eat fruits and vegetables

in season.

Foodshed

The concept of foodshed echoes the image of water flowing downhill and draws our attention to

where our food comes from. What is Emory’s foodshed? If we buy bananas from Costa Rica

and coffee from Kenya, our foodshed is international. Foodshed activists seek to re-focus on the

origins of our food, and to encourage purchases within a bioregion and with attention to impacts

on the lands and cultures. Steps to help re-build an alternative food future are to:

 Strengthen decisions that include non-economic values, such as pleasure, loyalty, justice,

friendship, and affection. Such decisions are made by individuals and institutions, such as

Emory.

Eating sustainably

Food and Place Emory University

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 Rebuild habits of eating together and fostering a relationship with the land that supports

us. Celebrations can attend to seasons of strawberries, peaches, cantaloupes, tomatoes,

corn, and other crops.

 Carve out “insulated spaces” where alternatives to conventional food can thrive, such as

Emory’s campus farmers market and new dining service commitments to sustainable

food purchases.

Emory’s efforts to increase sustainably-grown regional and Georgia-grown foods in dining halls

and hospitals are one way that we seek to strengthen our local food system.

Grassroots efforts lead the way

Local food efforts often highlight direct marketing, ways of building stronger ties between

consumers and farmers. Farmers markets, community-supported agriculture (CSAs or food

shares), roadside stands, and farm-to-school programs all put “the farmer’s face” on the food.

Local food systems can build trust in fresher food, grown with methods that support an ethic of

care for the land. Food cooperatives, restaurants that feature local produce and meats, and food

businesses such as bakeries provide another way to eat local food. Community gardens and

urban farming are important as well, building new, more intimate relationships with plants and

strengthening the social fabric.

Organizations that have promoted such food alternatives are the Community Food Security

Coalition (CFSC), a broad grassroots gathering of local food advocates who work for a

revitalized local food system. CFSC works not only on local issues such as community gardens

and farm-to-school programs, but also on farm bill legislation and reform of federal subsidies to

conventional agriculture. Improving access to high-quality, fresh food in underserved

neighborhoods—so-called “food deserts”—is central to food security work.

Where families

are constrained by poor transportation, stocking even a small grocery store with fresh vegetables

can increase dietary consumption of healthier foods.

Other groups seek to rebuild their local foodsheds. In the 1990s, Hartford, Connecticut followed

Toronto’s lead in creating a Local Food Project. Growing Power in Milwaukee and Chicago and

organizations such as the Practical Farmers of Iowa and the Pennsylvania Association for

Sustainable Agriculture (PASA) have led the way. The Food Routes coalition developed over a

dozen “Buy Fresh/Buy Local” campaigns around the country, supported by the Kellogg

Foundation. On-line directories that guide consumers to local farmers, chefs, stores, and pick-

your-own operations have been important information resources.

Here in Atlanta, Georgia Organics has been active in maintaining a Local Food Guide

(www.georgiaorganics.org) and has supported a range of activities to build a more sustainable

food system. The Atlanta Local Food Initiative (www.atlantalocalfood.org) has created a “Plan

for Atlanta’s Food Future” endorsed by the Centers for Disease Control and President Jimmy

Carter. The plan calls for actions to redress Atlanta’s food deserts, support farm-to-school

programs and community gardens, increase commitments to buy local, and support other ways to

rebuild connections to place around food. Southern Seed Legacy (http://www.uga.edu/ebl/ssl/)

and the Georgia chapters of Slow Food (http://www.slowfoodusa.org/) highlight biodiversity in

agriculture and preservation of traditional varieties (often hardy and disease resistant).

Eating sustainably

Food and Place Emory University

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Terroir and regional cuisine

Regions are often known for distinctive food products, and labeling systems can help consumers

identify foods that support traditional foodways and growing practices. European labels-of-

origin are well known in wine and cheese and are based on a sense of “terroir” or the special

soils that produce tastes unique to a particular region. In the U.S., regional specialties are less

likely to emphasize uniformity of a particular taste and more likely to highlight individual

excellence of particular craft products. Faculty at the University of Missouri, together with many

partners, launched a Regional Cuisines Project in 2002.

Missouri is famous for its cured hams

and a particular pecan native to the state, and labeling these products allows them to gain value.

Ecoregions have been delineated and as farmers become organized and standards are set,

certification processes will highlight local products, allowing greater transparency for the

consumer. These kinds of efforts call attention to local producers, soils, and the importance of

preserving cultural traditions.

Sustainability calls for attention to how our food provisioning works with nature. The

connection between humans, land, and food is scientific, but also philosophical and spiritual. “If

a system of production has negative side-effects, and cares not about the resources on which it

relies, then we have taken a path leading ultimately to disaster,” says agricultural development

leader, Jules Pretty.

As we seek to live up to Emory’s sustainability vision (“Healthy Emory,

Healthy Planet”), a revitalized relationship with soils, climate, seeds, farmers, and foodways is a

deeply appealing vision, one that can guide us forward to honor the places we call home.

Peggy Barlett for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Jackson, Wes and Wendell Berry. 2008. “A 50-Year Farm Bill” New York Times, January 5.

Kirschenmann, Frederick L. 2008. Food as Relationship. Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 3(2-

3):106-121.

Friedmann, Harriet 1993. After Midas’s Feast: Alternative Food Regimes for the Future. In, Food for the Future.

Patricia Allen, ed. Pp. 213-33. NY: Wiley.

Jackson, Wes. 1994. “Becoming Native to this Place.” The Earthscan Reader in Sustainable Agriculture. London:

Earthscan.

Berry, Wendell. 1990. “The Pleasures of Eating” from What are People For? NY: North Point Press, Farrar,

Straus and Giroux. http://www.ecoliteracy.org/publications/rsl/wendell-berry.html.

Hinrichs, C.Clare and Thomas A Lyson. 2007. Remaking the North American Food System: Strategies for

Sustainability. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press.

Hamm, Michael W. 2008. Linking Sustainable Agriculture and Public Health: Opportunities for Realizing

Multiple Goals. J. of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition 3(2-3):169-185.

Kloppenburg, Jack, Jr., John Hendrickson, and G.W. Stephenson. 1996. Coming in to the Foodshed. In, Rooted in

the Land. William Vitek and Wes Jackson, eds. Pp. 113-123. New Haven: Yale University Press.

Barham, Elizabeth 2002. Toward a Theory of Values-Based Labeling. Agriculture and Human Values 19(4):349-

360.

Gottlieb, Robert 2001. Environmentalism Unbound: Exploring New Pathways for Change. Cambridge, MA: MIT

Press.

National Research Council 2009. The Public Health Effects of Food Deserts. Washington, DC: National

Academies Press.

Bedford, Christopher B. 2006. Meeting the Challenge of Local Food. Business 28(1):17.

Barham, Elizabeth, David Lind, and Lewis Jett 2006 “The Missouri Regional Cuisines Project.” In Urban Place:

Reconnecting with the Natural World. Peggy F. Barlett, ed. Pp.141-72. Cambridge: MIT Press.

Pretty, Jules 2002. Agri-Culture: Reconnecting People, Land, and Nature. London: Earthscan

Eating sustainably

Marketing Terms Emory University

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Identifying sustainable food: an introduction to marketing terms

Food products and packages are peppered with marketing claims and terms espousing qualities

that are designed to steer the consumer toward buying foods that are sustainable and healthy for

people and the environment. But with so many terms to keep straight, how does one decide

whether to buy the certified organic, vegetarian fed chicken or the free range certified humane

chicken?

The first step is learning what makes a good eco-label. According to the Consumers Union

Guide to Environmental Claims, “the best eco-labels are seals or logos indicating that an

independent organization has verified that a product meets a set of meaningful and consistent

standards for environmental protection and/or social justice.”

This would be considered a third

party label or claim because it is made by an entity other than the seller (first party) or the buyer

(second party).

Because it is important to be familiar with the more common food related claims and

certifications, below is a list of common marketing terms.

This list has been developed with the

aid of the Sustainable Food Policy Project which was a collaboration of the following

organizations: Food Alliance, Health Care Without Harm, Association for the Advancement of

Sustainability in Higher Education, Oregon Center for Environmental Health, and the Institute

for Agriculture and Trade Policy.

There are many more claims and certifications beyond this list, so it is important to know where

to go to find more information about specific eco-labels. The Consumers Union Guide to

Environmental Claims (http://www.greenerchoices.org/eco-labels/) as well as

(http://ecolabelling.org) are helpful resources for learning more about these terms.

Labels Certified by an Independent Organization

Certified Humane Raised & Handled

This label is designed to certify that animals raised for dairy, lamb, poultry and beef products are

treated in a humane manner. Under the program, growth hormones are prohibited and animals

are raised on a diet without antibiotics, though antibiotics can be used in the treatment of sick

animals. Access to clean and sufficient food and water and a safe and healthful living

environment are also required from birth through slaughter. Producers also must comply with

environmental standards. Processors must comply with the American Meat Institute Standards, a

higher standard for slaughtering farm animals than required by the Federal Humane Slaughter

Act. www.certifiedhumane.com

Eating sustainably

Marketing Terms Emory University

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Fair Trade Certified

Fair Trade standards aim to ensure that farmers in developing nations receive a fair price for their

product and have direct trade relations with buyers and access to credit. They encourage

sustainable farming practices and discourage the use of child labor and certain pesticides. To

bear the label, products must be grown by small-scale, democratically organized producers. Fair

Trade Certified products include coffee, tea, chocolate, sugar, bananas and other tropical fruit,

rice and grains. TransFair USA is the third‐party certifier of Fair Trade goods in the US. It is one

of twenty members of Fairtrade Labeling Organizations International, the umbrella organization

that sets certification standards. www.transfairusa.org

Food Alliance Certified

To earn FA certification, farms and ranches must meet standards that provide safe and fair

working conditions; ensure healthy and humane care for livestock without adding hormones or

non-therapeutic antibiotics; use no genetically modified crops or livestock; reduce pesticide uses;

conserve soil and water resources; and protect wildlife habitat. Farmers are required to set goals

for continual improvement and sign an affidavit that genetically engineered crops are not used.

www.foodalliance.org

Marine Stewardship Council

The Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) is a non‐profit organization that promotes responsible

fishing practices. The MSC label assures buyers that products come from a well-managed fishery

and have not contributed to overfishing. MSC certification standard includes these principles:

1) The condition of the fish stocks (examines if there are enough fish to ensure that

the fishery is sustainable).

2) The impact of the fishery on the marine environment (examines the effect that

fishing has on the immediate marine environment including other non‐target

fish species, marine mammals and seabirds).

3) The fishery management systems (evaluates the rules and procedures that are in

place, as well as how they are implemented, to maintain a sustainable fishery

and to ensure that the impact on the marine environment is minimized).

www.msc.org

Eating sustainably

Marketing Terms Emory University

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Organic

In order to be labeled “organic,” products must meet the federal organic standards as determined

by a USDA‐approved certifying agency. Organic foods cannot be grown using synthetic

fertilizers, chemicals, or sewage sludge; cannot be genetically modified; and cannot be

irradiated. Organic meat and poultry must be fed only organically‐grown feed (without any

animal byproducts) and cannot be treated with hormones or antibiotics. In order to bear the

USDA “Certified Organic” seal, a product must contain 95 to 100% organic ingredients.

Products that contain 70% to 94% organic ingredients can be labeled “Made with Organic

Ingredients,” but cannot use the USDA “CertifiedOrganic” seal. Organic ingredients can be

listed on the packaging of products that are not entirely organic.

www.ams.usda.gov/NOP/indexNet.htm

Rainforest Alliance Certified

The Rainforest Alliance works to conserve biodiversity and ensure sustainable livelihoods by

transforming land‐use practices, business practices, and consumer behavior. The Rainforest

Alliance Certified seal is found on coffee, cocoa, chocolate, bananas, orange juice, guava,

pineapple, passion fruit, plantains, macadamia nuts, and other tropical products. On certified

farms, rainforest is conserved, workers are treated fairly, soil and water quality are not

compromised, waste is managed efficiently, chemical use is dramatically reduced, and relations

with surrounding communities are strong. www.rainforest‐alliance.org/index.cfm

Smithsonian Bird Friendly

The goal of the third party Bird Friendly certification program is to foster conditions on coffee

plantations that provide good bird habitats. Maintenance of the tree canopy, diversity in tree and

plant species, shade at specific times of the day, and establishment of plant borders around

streams or rivers are all included into the Bird Friendly label criteria. The Smithsonian Migratory

Bird Center (SMBC) only allows organic certifiers to issue the Bird Friendly label on organically

certified products. Organic inspectors must complete a “Shade Certification Check List” and sign

a certificate before the SMBC will allow the use of the Bird Friendly seal of approval.

http://nationalzoo.si.edu/ConservationAndScience/MigratoryBirds/Coffee/

Eating sustainably

Marketing Terms Emory University

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Labels Not Certified by an Independent Organization

Antibiotic Claims

The USDA has prohibited use of the term “Antibiotic Free” as a label claim for meats and

poultry, but allows “Raised Without Antibiotics” or “No Antibiotics Administered.” These

claims imply that no antibiotics were administered to the animal at any point during its life. If an

animal becomes sick and requires treatment, it should be segregated from other animals and sold

as a conventional meat product. There is often no independent verification of these antibiotic

claims.

Cage Free

This is a first party claim that poultry were raised without cages. This does not guarantee that

birds were raised with access to the outdoors or on pasture. Birds may have been raised in large

flocks in commercial confinement facilities with open floor plans. There is often no independent

verification of “Cage Free” claims.

Free Range

Free range and related terms are popular label claims for poultry and eggs and are sometimes

seen on other meats. Free range is regulated by the USDA for use on poultry only (not eggs),

which requires that birds be given access to the outdoors for an undetermined period each day.

In practice, the “Free Range” claim does not guarantee that the animal actually spent any period

of time outdoors, only that access was available. Birds may have been raised in large flocks in

commercial confinement facilities with open floor plans. There is often no independent

verification of “Free Range” claims.

Genetically Modified Organism (GMO) Claims

With growing consumer concern for genetically modified crops and livestock entering the food

supply chain, a number of companies have begun to assert their food products are “GMO-Free.”

The US organic standards offer independent verification of the process of food production, but

there is no guarantee that the product is uncontaminated by GMOs. Some certification programs,

such as Organic and Food Alliance, prohibit genetically modified ingredients in certified foods

and have corresponding inspection protocols. However, laboratory tests may be necessary to

provide maximum surety there has been no cross-contamination of products.

Grassfed

As defined by the American Grassfed Association, this claim means that animals live on pasture,

consume a natural forage diet, and do not receive hormone or antibiotic treatments. However,

the USDA, in a standard published for comment in 2006, has defined “grassfed” to only mean

animals that consume a diet of grasses and silage. The USDA standard does not prohibit

confinement or hormone and antibiotic treatments. Suppliers should be clear which standard

they claim to meet. There is currently no independent verification of this claim under either

standard. Note that “Grassfed” claims are sometimes qualified with supplemental “Grain

Finished” claims. This combination describes the conventional industrial livestock feeding

model, and invalidates the “Grassfed” claim.

Eating sustainably

Marketing Terms Emory University

11

Hormone Claims

The USDA has prohibited use of the terms “Hormone Free,” but meats can be labeled “No

Hormones Administered,” meaning that the animals in question did not receive hormone

injections or feed supplements. Claims are also frequently asserted that milk products are

“rBGH-Free” and/or “rBST-Free.” (rBGH and rBST are hormone supplements given to dairy

cows to increase milk production.) Federal law prohibits the use of hormones in hogs and

poultry, so hormone claims for chicken or pork should be considered misleading. There is often

no independent verification of hormone claims.

Natural

USDA guidelines state that “Natural” meat and poultry products can only undergo minimal

processing and cannot contain artificial colors, artificial flavors, preservatives, or other artificial

ingredients. “Natural” is used with similar meaning with other food products as well. Beyond

this limited definition, “natural” should be considered a meaningless claim. The term does not

offer any information about the social or environmental impact of the product. It does not

guarantee that livestock were humanely raised or provide information about use of hormones or

antibiotics. It does not guarantee that crops were raised according to any standard. There is

typically no independent verification of “natural” claims.

Omega-3

This label is a first-party claim seen on a wide variety of foods frommayonnaisetomargarine,

eggs,cereal,milk,yogurt,cookies,frozenpizza,andcannedfish.Therearethreemain

omegafattyacidsinfood:DHA(docosahexaenoic acid),EPA(eicosapentaenoic acid) andALA

(alpha-linolenic acid).EvidenceforDHAandEPAanddiseasepreventionissomewhat

strongerthantheevidenceforALA.

FoodcompaniesarenotrequiredbytheFDAto

indicatethesourceofomega‐3s.Additionally,foodslabeledascontainingomega‐3svary

widelyinamountperserving,soitisimportanttoreadthefineprintonthepackage.



Vegetarian Diet

This is a first-party claim that livestock were not fed any animal by-products. With the

appearance of “mad cow disease,” which is transmitted through animal by-products added to

cattle feed, vegetarian diets are increasing. The claim does not indicate that animals were fed a

natural forage diet. Animals may have been fed corn or other grains, agricultural by-products or

food processing wastes (such as potato peels). Animals may have received antibiotics or other

feed supplements. There is often no independent verification of this claim.

Kip Slaughter for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

ConsumersUnionGuidetoEnvironmentalClaims.Availableat:http://www.greenerchoices.org/eco‐labels/

A Guide to Developing a Sustainable Food Purchasing Policy.Available at: http://www.sustainablefoodpolicy.org

Essential Fatty Acids. Linus Pauling Institute. Available at:

http://lpi.oregonstate.edu/infocenter/othernuts/omega3fa/

Center for Science in the Public Interest. http://www.cspinet.org/new/pdf/omegas.pdf

Eating sustainably

Health benefits Emory University

12

Health benefits of eating sustainably

 There are 1 billion overweight and 300 million obese adults worldwide

 300,000 deaths per year in the US can be attributed to obesity

 Obese individuals are at a 50-100% higher risk of premature death

US Obesity Trends by State

Obesity is defined as a body mass index (BMI) index of 30 or greater. BMI is calculated from a person’s

weight and height. The maps show the percent of US adults who are obese.

cdc.gov

Why? Influences from the Toxic Environment

According to Wang and Brownell at Yale, “animals are adept at regulating a very steady body weight

until they are placed in a situation in which palatable, high-fat, high-sugar food is consistently accessible

to them. Under these conditions, laboratory animals overeat and become far heavier than their normal

body weight, even when nutritionally balanced food is available.” They further assert, “although

individuals have the ability to make choices, it is difficult to make healthy choices and to succeed when

the environment is stacked against them.”

Calorie-dense but nutrient-poor food

The past 60 years saw an increase in the consumption of energy-dense foods, high in saturated fats and

sugar. Energy-dense, nutrient-sparse alternatives replaced low calorie, nutrient-rich foods and drinks; for

example, soda replaced milk and salty snacks replaced fruits. One can of A&W Root Beer has 4

tablespoons of sugar and 170 calories. The same amount of skim milk has 120 calories and nutrients like

protein, calcium, and vitamin D. We now eat on the run and rely on a “quick fix” to satiate hunger. Fast

food is often highly processed and fried in oil with saturated fats. Eating out increased 89% from 1972 to

1995. Research shows that people consume almost 200 more calories per day eating outside the home.

Exercise

Also, as Americans consume more energy, they expend fewer calories. One-fourth of Americans report

being completely sedentary. Half of children walked to school in 1950, but only 10% of children report

walking to school today.

Furthermore, most popular leisure activities, such as watching television,

require little to no physical activity.

Portion size

Eating sustainably

Health benefits Emory University

13

Portion sizes of some foods have increased two-fold since the 1950s -- bagels are twice the size and

candy bars come in “King Size.” A turkey sandwich may be a healthy choice for lunch, but may

contain enough meat and bread for two meals.

Some super-sized fast food meals pack the daily calorie

recommendations into a single meal.

Portion size: 1987 versus 2007

Cheeseburgers Soda

1987: 333 calories 2007: 590 calories 1987: 85 calories 2007: 250 calories

Spaghetti and meatballs

1987: 500 calories 2007: 1025 calories

Human health consequences of obesity

 Coronary heart disease

 Type 2 diabetes

 Cancers (endometrial, breast, and colon)

 Hypertension (high blood pressure)

 Dyslipidemia (for example, high total cholesterol or high levels of triglycerides)

 Stroke

 Liver & gallbladder disease

 Sleep apnea and respiratory problems

 Osteoarthritis (a degeneration of cartilage and its underlying bone within a joint)

 Gynecological problems (abnormal menses, infertility)

General guidelines

Eating sustainably

Health benefits Emory University

14

Eat more…

 Fruits and vegetables

Fill half your plate

The more color variety, the more nutritious

 “Whole Grain” carbohydrates (oatmeal, whole wheat bread, brown rice)

Whole grains contain fiber which slows digestion and helps you feel full longer

Wheat bread is often highly processed. Don’t be fooled by the “wheat” title—look for “whole”!

Items labeled “multigrain” are not necessarily whole grain; check the label.

 Protein from chicken, fish, grass-fed meats, and vegetable sources, such as beans and nuts

 Unsaturated fats

Substitute omega 6 or omega 3 unsaturated fatty acids for dairy and animal fat

Fish, beans, almonds, olives, avocados and many seeds contain the essential fatty acids that are

beneficial to heart and skin health

Olive oil and canola oil are good sources of unsaturated fats

Eat less…

 Trans and saturated fats

Choose lower fat dairy options and lean protein such as fish or skinless poultry

Substitute grass-fed meats for grain-fed

Stay away from fried food and large amounts of butter or baked goods

 Soda and fruit juices

 Red meat

 Food in general; be aware of portion sizes for your weight and activity levels:

One serving of meat looks like a deck of cards: most Americans consume twice the daily

recommended value for protein. Other sources of protein such as beans, nuts, and tofu will help

round out strengthen your diet.

One serving of peanut butter or salad dressing is about the size of a golf ball

When eating out, take half your meal to go and stretch your dollars, not your waistline.

Try to …

 Get 30 minutes of physical activity daily

 Take the stairs instead of the elevator; ride your bike to class or work. (This also benefits the

environment!)

 Support parks, bike trails, and safe recreational spaces for all Atlanta residents. It is easy to forget that

outdoor recreation is dangerous in some parts of town, which limits exercise.

 Promote efforts to make fresh foods available in all neighborhoods and schools.

Don’t forget…

Every person’s diet needs are different, but most researchers agree about certain basic principles of

healthful diets: variety in food intake, moderation in calories, largely plant-based, and minimally

processed.



Eating sustainably

Health benefits Emory University

15

<http://www.eatdrinkandweighless.com/images/img-pyramid-lg.gi>

Becca Gittelson and Brooke Mills for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Eating sustainably

Health benefits Emory University

16

“WHO | Obesity and overweight." October 2009.

<http://www.who.int/dietphysicalactivity/publications/facts/obesity/en/>.

Wang, S.S., & Brownell, K.D. 2005. “Public policy and obesity: The need to marry science with advocacy.”

Psychiatric Clinics of North America, 28:235-252.

United States Department of Agriculture. October 2009. <http://www.mypyramid.gov/>.

"Why People Become Overweight - Harvard Health Publications." November 2009. Health Information and

Medical Information - Harvard Health Publications. <http://www.health.harvard.edu/newsweek/Why-people-

become-overweight.htm>.

National Resource Center on Nutrition, Physical Activity & Aging. April 2010.

<nutritionandaging.fiu.edu/DRI_and_DGs/mypyramid-portions.ppt>

"The Surgeon General's Call to Action to Prevent and Decrease Overweight and Obesity." October 2009 Office of

the Surgeon General. <http://www.surgeongeneral.gov/topics/obesity/calltoaction/fact_consequences.htm>

Willett, W. 2001. Eat, Drink, and Be Healthy: The Harvard Medical School Guide to Healthy Eating. New York:

Free Press..

Nestle, Marion. March 2010. “Confused about nutrition? Eat Food!” Food Politics.

<http://www.foodpolitics.com/2010/02/confused-about-nutrition-eat-food/>

Eating sustainably

Nutrient content Emory University

17

Nutrient content and sustainable food

There are a variety of reasons that people choose sustainably produced foods over conventional

foods. Though organic foods are just one category of foods under the sustainability umbrella, a

2006 survey by the consumer research firm, Hartman Group, found that health reasons and

nutritional needs are primary reasons that consumers choose to buy organic foods, but consumers

also want to avoid pesticides, chemicals, antibiotics and genetically modified organisms.

Is the

consumer correct in believing that organic and other sustainably produced foods offer a

nutritional edge over their conventionally produced counterparts?

As one might suspect, there is not a simple answer. How healthy a food is for a person depends

on their overall diet and state of health. The quality of a food’s nutrition depends on many factors

including how and for how long it is stored and whether it has been processed in any way.

Whether a food is fresh, whole, frozen, thawed, steamed, dried or combined with additional

ingredients (salt, fat, sugar, added vitamins and minerals) can all impact nutrition quality. In

short, whole, fresh, in season, unprocessed foods are generally more nutritious than packaged

and processed foods. Beyond that, the method by which the food is raised (local, organic, grass-

fed, etc) may also have some effect on nutrient content.

Plant Foods

When it comes to sustainable plant foods most of the debate about the nutritional value stems

from whether or not a plant food was organically grown. A number of studies have examined the

question of whether organic foods are healthier with conflicting results.

The researchers at the Organic Center (TOC)—an American nonprofit that conducts scientific

research on organic products—say that organically produced fruits and vegetables are on average

more nutritious than their conventionally produced counterparts. According to TOC’s 2008

review of the current literature there appear to be two mechanisms responsible for the difference.

1. Pest Pressure

2,3,4,5,6

- When plants are under stress from pests, they produce a diverse

array of natural chemicals called secondary plant metabolites (SPMs), many of which

are antioxidants. SPMs also are responsible for giving fruit and vegetables their bright

coloring and distinctive flavors. Plants on organic farms typically have to deal with

higher levels of pests than plants on conventional farms, where pesticides are routinely

applied. For this reason, plants on organic farms more fully engage their innate defense

mechanisms, and in doing so, elevate antioxidant concentrations.

2. Dilution Effect

7,8

- Antioxidant levels tend to be higher in organic fruit and vegetables

because plants on organic farms tend to grow slower and mature at a smaller size than

fast-growing, heavily fertilized conventional produce. This explanation has its roots in

the “dilution effect,” which is the tendency for vitamins, minerals and antioxidant levels

to be reduced – or diluted – in large, fast-growing and high-yielding crops.

Eating sustainably

Nutrient content Emory University

18

In contrast to TOC’s review, a 2009 study

funded by the United Kingdom's Food Standards

Agency (FSA) —a British government department—reviewed the same pool of literature as

TOC but used different methodology and came to markedly different conclusions. The FSA

study concluded that there are no significant differences in the nutritional quality of organic and

conventional food.

How is it that two groups of scientists can look at the same set of research and come to different

conclusions? TOC claims that one of the main differences is in antioxidants. Antioxidants are

substances that may protect cells against the effects of free radicals. Free radicals are produced

normally in the body but also by exposures to things in the environment such as radiation or

tobacco. Free radicals can cause cell damage and may play a role in disease processes such as

cancer.

While the TOC review included total polyphenols and total antioxidant content -- two measures

of the amount of antioxidants in foods -- the FSA chose not to include those measures. Do

varying antioxidant levels make all the difference in the debate over the nutrient content of

sustainable foods? More research is needed on the human health impacts of consuming products

with higher levels of plant antioxidants and on organic and conventionally raised foods before

that can be answered with certainty. For now many who do not find the current nutrient research

convincing still choose organically grown produce over conventional produce for other reasons

such as avoiding pesticides and genetically modified organisms, and protecting the environment.

Animal Foods

While there have been years of controversy surrounding nutrition and sustainable plant foods,

there tends to be much more consensus about the nutritional superiority of sustainably produced

animal foods.

Beef

The most comprehensive study to date on the nutritional benefits of grass fed beef was a 2009

collaboration of researchers at the USDA and Clemson University. Their study found that grass

fed beef is lower in total fat, higher in beta-carotene, higher in vitamin E (alpha-tocopherol),

higher in the B-vitamins thiamin and riboflavin, higher in the minerals calcium, magnesium, and

potassium, and higher in total omega-3s. Additionally, they found that grass fed beef contains a

healthier ratio of omega-6 to omega-3 fatty acids and is lower in the saturated fats linked with

heart disease.

Eggs

Eggs from chickens that have been raised on pasture have been found to contain 10% less fat,

34% less cholesterol, 40% more vitamin A, and four times more omega-3 fatty acids compared

to the standard values reported by the USDA for commercial eggs.

Additionally, Penn State

researcher Heather Karsten found that when she compared chickens raised on pasture to chickens

raised on an industrial diet that there was “about twice as much vitamin E and 40 percent more

vitamin A in the yolks of pasture-fed birds than in the caged birds. The longer the animals were

on pasture, the more vitamins they produced.”

Eating sustainably

Nutrient content Emory University

19

Dairy

As with nutrient differences that have been observed in the meat of grass fed cows versus grain

fed cows, researchers have observed similar differences in their milk and dairy products. This is

due to the fact that living grass is far richer in vitamins E and A, and in the antioxidant beta-

carotene than the typical grain based diet of dairy cows.

It is important to note that not all

organic milk comes from grass fed cows. Requirements for organic milk state that cows must

have “access to pasture.” However, this standard does not require a specific length of time in

pasture. Thus a cow can graze in pasture for a limited time and still produce milk that is certified

organic. Also, like the dilution effect seen with nutrients in plant foods that are forced into high

yields, some researchers have found a similar effect with milk of cows treated with hormones to

increase their milk production. Thus, the more milk a cow produces, the more diluted the vitamin

content of her milk becomes.

When exploring the topic of nutrition content and sustainable foods it is important to remember

that levels of vitamins, minerals, fats, antioxidants and other nutrients should not be where the

conversation ends. Sustainable foods have benefits for the environment, for farmers and farm

workers, pesticide reduction, for fighting antibiotic resistance and for taste, all of which impact

our health and collective well-being.

Kip Slaughter for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

The Hartman Group, Organic 2006: Consumer Attitudes & Behavior, Five Years Later & Into the Future.

Brandt, K., Ejlerson, A., Norbaek, R., and Peterson, H. L. Effects of cultivation conditions for apples on growth

rates of fruit fly larvae and contents of phenolics. Organic E-Prints. 2002.

Daniel, O., Meier, M. S., Schlatter, J., and Frischknecht, P. Selected phenolic compounds in cultivated plants:

ecologic functions, health implications, and modulation by pesticides. Environ.Health Perspect. 107 Suppl 1, 109-

114. 1999.

Romero, C., Brenes, M., Yousfi , K., Garcia, P., Garcia, A., and Garrido, A. Effect of cultivar and

processing method on the contents of polyphenols in table olives. J Agric Food Chem. 52(3),

479-484. 2-11-2004a.

Wang, S. Y. and Lin, H. S. Antioxidant activity in fruits and leaves of blackberry, raspberry, and

strawberry varies with cultivar and developmental stage. J Agric Food Chem. 48(2), 140-146. 2000

Wang, S. Y., Zheng, W., and Galletta, G. J. Cultural system affects fruit quality and antioxidant capacity in

strawberries. J Agric Food Chem. 50(22), 6534-6542. 10-23-2002.

Davis, D. R., Epp, M. D., and Riordan, H. D. Changes in USDA Food Compostion Data for 43 Garden Crops,

1950 to 1999. Journal of the American College of Nutrition 23(6). 1-2-2004.

Farrell, E. Medical choices available for management of menopause. Best.Pract.Res.Clin.Endocrinol.Metab 17(1),

1-16. 2003

Dangour, et al. “Nutritional quality of organic foods: a systematic review”. Am J Clin Nutr Jul 2009.

S.K. Duckett et al, Journal of Animal Science, (published online) June 2009, “Effects of winter stocker growth

rate and finishing system on: III. Tissue proximate, fatty acid, vitamin and cholesterol content.”

Gorski. “Pastured Poultry Products”. Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education. 1999. Available at:

http://www.sare.org/reporting/report_viewer.asp?pn=FNE99-248&ry=1999&rf=0

Lott. “Pasture-ized Poultry”. Research Penn State. Available at: http://www.rps.psu.edu/0305/poultry.html

Searles, SK et al, "Vitamin E, Vitamin A, and Carotene Contents of Alberta Butter." Journal of Diary Science,

53(2) 150-154.

Jensen, S. K. "Quantitative secretion and maximal secretion capacity of retinol, beta-carotene and alpha-

tocopherol into cows' milk." J Dairy Res 66, no. 4 (1999): 511-22.

Eating sustainably

Pesticides Emory University

20

Pesticides and organic foods

Should we worry about pesticides in food?

Pesticides are chemicals (insecticides, herbicides, fungicides, and rodenticides) used to kill

agricultural and livestock pests. They can be found in many different types of foods, from fresh

fruits and vegetables to processed grain products. Insecticides are also used to kill mosquitoes

and other vectors of human disease. Because many insecticides can be toxic to the human brain,

we worry about pesticides in the food supply. Washing and peeling can help lower levels of

pesticides consumed, but not in all cases and more studies are needed.

1,2

Although pesticide levels in the U.S. food supply are generally below existing federal limits,

scientists and regulators are still concerned about exposure, especially during pregnancy and

early childhood. Many pesticides can be passed through the mother’s blood to the baby during

pregnancy. A growing body of evidence shows that exposures during this critical period of brain

development are associated with adverse health outcomes such as poor reflexes and poor

performance on cognitive tests. There is also some health concern over certain fungicides and

herbicides, although research on these is currently limited.

Several large studies are examining the effects of pesticide exposures during pregnancy and early

childhood in places like California and New York City where pesticides are used extensively for

agriculture or household pest control. These studies have produced several important discoveries

about pregnancy exposures and their effects. Findings show that children born to mothers with

high levels of certain insecticides in their blood or urine perform poorly on movement,

intelligence, and behavioral tests compared to children born to mothers with lower levels.

3,4,5,6,7

These findings persist even after other factors affecting children’s brain development, such as

maternal education, are taken into account.

Does “organic” mean the food is pesticide free?

An organic label does not guarantee a food is pesticide free. Many foods (and soils, animals, and

humans) around the world have measureable levels of organochlorine insecticides such as DDT,

hexachlorobenzene, and chlordane, even though they are banned in most countries, including the

U.S. These are called “persistent pesticides” because they take hundreds of years to degrade.

Some pesticides legally used in agriculture or household pest control have been detected in foods

labeled “organic.” Researchers at the Rollins School of Public Health measured low levels of

organophosphorus and pyrethroid insecticides in certified organic foods taken from Atlanta

residents’ homes.

Other U.S. studies have also found pesticides in organic foods, although

generally at lower levels than in conventional foods.

Food may be contaminated at the store,

when it is purchased and transported home, or at home when it is prepared for consumption.

Experimental studies show that pesticide residues from kitchen surfaces can also contaminate

foods.

10,11

Are there “organic” pesticides?

Production, marketing, and use of pesticides is controlled by the U.S. Environmental Protection

Agency (EPA). EPA and USDA maintain a list of pesticides allowable under the National

Eating sustainably

Pesticides Emory University

21

Organic Program. These include naturally and microbially-derived pesticides (e.g. acetic acid)

and a limited number of low-toxicity synthetic substances (e.g. boric acid and elemental sulfur).

The pesticide of last resort for organic producers is Bt, which has been incorporated into

conventional crops through genetic engineering and may be losing its effectiveness due to

emerging insect resistance.

Is “organic” production safer for farm workers and their families?

Studies show that farm workers and their families can be more highly exposed to pesticides than

the general population.

The workers can be directly exposed in the workplace and they can

also bring pesticides home on their shoes, work clothes, or skin if they do not wash and change

first. Agricultural workers typically live, either temporarily or permanently, close to or actually

on the farms where they work. Studies show that levels of pesticides in house dust in their homes

can be higher than in non-agricultural homes.

13, 14

Although studies cannot say for sure yet

whether organic farming is safer for farm workers and their families, it is highly likely that

organic farming reduces pesticide exposures compared to conventional farming.

Anne Riederer for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Boulaid M, Aguilera A, Camacho F, Soussi M, Valverde A. 2005. Effect of household processing and unit-to-unit

variability of pyrifenox, pyridaben, and tralomethrin residues in tomatoes. Journal of Agricultural and Food

Chemistry. 53:4054-8.

Schattenberg HJ 3rd, Geno PW, Hsu JP, Fry WG, Parker RP. 1996. Effect of household preparation on levels of

pesticide residues in produce. Journal of the Association of Analytical Chemists International. 79:1447-53.

Rauh VA, Garfinkel R, Perera FP, Andrews HF, Hoepner L, Barr DB, Whitehead R, Tang D, Whyatt RW. 2006.

Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3 years of life among innercity children.

Pediatrics 118:e1845-59.

Engel SM, Berkowitz G, Barr DB, Teitelbaum SL, Siskind J, Meisel SJ, Wetmur JG, Wolff MS. 2007. Prenatal

organophosphate metabolite and organochlorine levels and performance on the Brazelton Neonatal Behavioral

Assessment Scale in a multiethnic pregnancy cohort. American Journal of Epidemiology 165:1397-404.

Young JG, Eskenazi B, Gladstone EA, Bradman A, Pedersen L, Johnson C, Barr DB, Furlong CE, Holland NT.

2005. Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and abnormal reflexes in neonates.

Neurotoxicology 26:199-209.

Eskenazi B, Marks AR, Bradman A, Harley K, Barr DB, Johnson C, Morga N, Jewell NP. 2007. OP exposure and

neurodevelopment in Mexican-American children. Environmental Health Perspectives 115:792-98.

Berkowitz GS, irman-Deych E, Obel J, Lapinski RH, Godbold JH, Holzman IR, Wolff MS. 2004. In utero

pesticide exposure, PON1 activity, and head circumference. Environmental Health Perspectives 112:388-91.

Riederer AM, Hunter Jr. RE, Hayden SW, Ryan PB. 2010. Pyrethroid and organophosphorus pesticides in

composite diet samples from Atlanta, USA adults. Environmental Science and Technology. 44:483-490.

Baker BP, Benbrook CM, Groth E, Lutz Benbrook K. 2002. Pesticide residues in conventional, integrated pest

management (IPM)-grown and organic foods: insights from three US data sets. Food Additives and Contaminants.

19:427-46.

Vonderheide AP, Bernard CE, Hieber TE, Kauffman PE, Morgan JN, Melnyk LJ. 2009. Surface-to-food pesticide

transfer as a function of moisture and fat content. J. Exposure Science and Environmental Epidemiology.

19:97-106.

11 Rohrer CA, Hieber TE, Melnyk LJ, Berry MR.

2003.

Transfer efficiencies of pesticides from household flooring surfaces to foods.

Journal of Exposure

Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

454-464.

McCauley LA, Anger WK, Keifer M, Langley R, Robson MG, Rohlman D. 2006. Studying health outcomes in

farmworker populations exposed to pesticides. Environmental Health Perspectives 114:953-60.

Bradman A, Whitaker D, Quirós L, Castorina R, Henn BC, Nishioka M, Morgan J, Barr DB, Harnly M, Brisbin

JA, Sheldon LS, McKone TE, Eskenazi B. 2007. Pesticides and metabolites in the homes and urine of farmworker

children living in the Salinas Valley, CA. Journal of Exposure Analysis and Environmental Epidemiology.

17:331-49.

McCauley LA, Travers R, Lasarev M, Muniz J, Nailon R.2006. Effectiveness of cleaning practices in removing

pesticides from home environments. Journal of Agromedicine. 11:81-8.

Eating sustainably

GMOs Emory University

22

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs)

Genetically modified organisms (GMOs) are defined as organisms, with the exception of human

beings, in which the genetic material has been directly manipulated in the lab. Genetically

modified organisms may alternately be referred to as GM, GEOs, or organisms/food produced

through bioengineering.

Corn, cotton, and soybeans are the three major agricultural crops that have relied most heavily on

the application of GMO technology. Since 1996, when genetically engineered crops were first

planted in the US, this technology has increased exponentially in the US with percent of acreage

rising to 85% of corn, 88% of cotton, and 91% of soybean crops planted in 2009.

Gene-altered

corn and soybeans are now used in two-thirds of processed foods made by US food companies.

Two classes of engineered traits make up nearly all GMO acreage: herbicide tolerance and insect

resistance. Roundup Ready soybeans are one example of a crop engineered for herbicide

tolerance. Soybean plants containing the Roundup Ready gene (glyphosate tolerance), are not

harmed by the application of the herbicide Roundup which can then be sprayed on the field to

kill weeds. Bt corn is an example of a crop engineered for insect resistance. Bacillus

thuringiensis (Bt) is a bacterium that produces a protein toxic to insects. Bt corn has been

engineered to contain that toxin in all parts of the plant, thereby killing insects that may consume

it.

The application of GMOs to agriculture has allowed farmers to initially decrease use of

herbicides and insecticides and to increase profitability. Recent studies have confirmed that

Roundup- and Bt-resistant weeds and insects have emerged and overall chemical use has

increased

.Significant long term risks associated with genetically engineered agriculture include

the transfer of chemical resistance to wild plants, loss of biodiversity, and the possible health

effects of these new genes and gene products on the human consumer. Considerable scientific

and public controversy exists around these issues.

To date, scientific study of the associated benefits and risks of biotechnology has been limited,

primarily industry-funded, and has sparked significant debate. Advocates of the Precautionary

Principle support regulatory decision makers to err on the side of caution when there is scientific

uncertainty. To that end, the Ecological Society of America supports the recommendation that

environmental release of GMOs should be prevented if scientific knowledge about possible risks

is clearly inadequate.

The U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) has repeatedly sided with biotechnology

companies, concluding that new gene-altered products are “substantially equivalent” or

“virtually” identical to their conventional counterparts. This position has been central for the

FDA’s decision to prevent labeling of foods containing gene-altered ingredients. Across the

Atlantic, European consumers have shunned GMO cropsand foods made from genetically-

altered ingredients. The Food Alliance and the USDA Organic certification programs have

followed suit in their stance against GMOs.

5,6

Eating sustainably

GMOs Emory University

23

Critics argue that since the 1996 harvest, the entire U.S. population has been part of an

uncontrolled experiment to demonstrate the long-term safety of gene-altered corn and

soybeans.

Without food labeling it is virtually impossible to do public health monitoring,

and individuals suffering unanticipated health effects are likewise unable to assign blame or

determine liability.

Controversy also exists around the patenting of genetically modified materials, a legal right that

emerged from a US Supreme Court decision in 1980 allowing biotechnology companies and

other researchers to experiment, change seeds, and patent the results

. Farmers who wish to use

patented seeds pay a "technology fee" to the patent holder. The potential for corporations to

patent traditional seeds, long in use by farmers in developing countries, presents a challenge to

seed availability and farmers' costs. Critics also express concern over the consolidation over the

last twenty years of dozens of seed companies into a very small number of corporations that hold

seed patents affecting major sectors of the international food supply

. Private control of widely-

used seeds has also inhibited scientific development of new varieties in public laboratories.

Recently, corporate mergers have restricted the availability of thousands of openly-pollinated

seed varieties, narrowing the base of agricultural biodiversity.

Bryce Carlson for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

U.S. Dept of Agriculture, National Agricultural Statistics Service (NASS). Acreage. June 30, 2009.

http://www.ers.usda.gov/data/biotechcrops/

Hart K (2003) Eating in the Dark: America’s Experiment with Genetically Engineered Food. Vintage Books. New

York

Committee on the Impact of Biotechnology on Farm-level Economics and Sustainability (2010). Impact of

Genetically Engineered Crops on Farm Sustainability in the United States. Washington, DC: National Research

Council.

http://www.esa.org/pao/policyStatements/Statements/GeneticallyModifiedOrganisms.php

Food Alliance: http://www.foodalliance.org/

USDA - National Organic Program: http://www.ams.usda.gov/AMSv1.0/nop

Hart K (2003) Eating in the Dark: America’s Experiment with Genetically Engineered Food. Vintage Books. New

York

Diamond v. Chakrabarty, 447 U.S. 303 (1980). Available at: [http://laws.findlaw.com/us/447/303.html]

Howard, Paul H. 2009. Visualizing Consolidation in the Global Seed Industry: 1996-2008. Sustainability 1:1266-

87.

Additional references

Gillam C (2008) U.S. organic food industry fears GMO contamination. Reuters. March 12, 2008

Hails RS (2000) Genetically modified plants – the debate continues. Trends in Ecology & Evolution 15(1): 14-18

Herring R (2008) Opposition to transgenic technologies: ideology, interests and collective action frames. Nature

Reviews: Genetics 9:458-463

Snow AA, Andow DA, Gepts P, Hallerman EM, Power A, Tiedje JM, Wolfenbarger LL (2005) Genetically

engineered organisms and the environment: Current Status and recommendations. Ecological Applications

15(2): 377-404

Welsh R, Ervin DE (2006) Precaution as an Approach to Technology Development: The case of Transgenic Crops.

Science, Technology, & Human Values 31(2): 153-172

Eating sustainably

Environmental Impact Emory University

24

Food choices and environmental impact: Meat and plant-based diets

People have many reasons for choosing what to eat. We may prefer the familiar foods we

were raised with (“comfort food”). Some of us are drawn to foods that are highly advertised in

the media and readily available. Or we may be drawn to trendy foods that are featured at

restaurants and that mark us as sophisticated eaters. Many vegetarians choose their diets out of

ethical concern for the lives of animals. Probably, most of us do not choose what we eat with an

awareness of how our choices affect the environment and, in particular, the climate crisis. While

food choices are a deeply individual matter, the collective impact of our decisions about what to

eat is greater than many people realize.

All food is ultimately “solar powered” in that its availability can be traced back to living

beings’ ability to make use of the sun’s energy. But whether a particular food is more closely or

more distantly related to the sun’s energy can make an enormous difference in how the

consumption of that food affects the environment. As a general rule, eating foods that are

produced directly through photosynthesis (plants) will require less total energy than will eating

foods that are produced by animals who eat plants (meat, milk, eggs). So, one common sense

rule of thumb would be that eating a plant-based diet has less of an impact on the environment

than eating a meat-based diet. While this rule of thumb is in general a good guide to lowering the

environmental impact of our eating choices, the environmental consequences of food choices are

actually more complicated than that. For both plant and animal foods it matters considerably

where and how the food is produced. Plant foods that are raised with heavy use of fossil-fuel

based fertilizers, cultivated with fossil-fuel run equipment, heavily processed, and transported

long distances can have a significantly negative impact on the environment, whereas local

pastured meat produced according to sustainable practices can enhance the environment through

improvements to soil and water quality.

Impact of Conventional Meat Production

• Currently, 1/3 of the world’s grain harvest (including 50% of corn and 90% of soybeans) are

not consumed directly by humans but are used for animal feed on factory farms.

• These grain crops are primarily grown on large scale, mono-crop farms, highly dependent on

fossil-fuel based fertilizers.

• On average, it takes 6 kilograms of plant protein to produce 1 kilogram of animal protein. For

beef the ratio is 40 to 1; for pork 14 to 1; for chicken 4 to 1.

• To produce 1 kilogram of animal protein requires about 100 times more water than to produce

1 kilogram of grain protein.

• The current system of livestock production accounts for 37% of methane and 65% of nitrous

oxide emissions, two of the most potent greenhouse gases.

• The manure holding pits (“lagoons”) of CAFOs (concentrated animal feedlot operations) break

down organic matter without oxygen, a process that speeds the entry of methane and carbon

dioxide into the atmosphere.

Eating sustainably

Environmental Impact Emory University

25

For consumers who want to lower the environmental impact of their food choices, several

strategies are possible:

• Reduce the amount of conventionally raised animal protein in your diet, substituting plant-

based protein.

• Choose grass-fed or pastured meats. Grass-fed beef requires half the energy input as grain-fed

beef and produces significantly less greenhouse gases.

Buying locally produced meats reduces

the carbon emissions used in transportation.

• Choose meats that are more efficiently produced in terms of energy inputs (for instance,

chicken rather than beef).

• For plant based diets, choose organic and sustainably grown foods, which are produced without

petroleum-based fertilizers and pesticides.

Organic corn requires 1/3 less energy per acre to

grow.

• Choose local, organic, and sustainably grown fruits and vegetables to minimize emissions from

transportation.

Carol A. Newsom for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Rajendra Pachauri, “Global Warning: The Impact of Meat Production and Consumption on Cimate Change” (paper,

Compassion in World Farming, London, September 8, 2008).

Anna Lappé, Diet for a Hot Planet, (New York: Bloomsbury USA, 2010), 14 and 208.

David Pimentel and Marcia Pimentel, “Sustainability of Meat-based and Plant-based Diets and the Environment,”

The American Journal of Clinical Nutrition 2003; 78 (suppl): 661S-662S.

Pimentel and Pimentel, 662S.

Henning Steinfeld et al., Livestock’s Long Shadow. (Http://www.fao.org/docrep/o10/a0710e/a0710e00.HTM), 112,

114.

P. Smith et al., “Agriculture,” in O. R. Davidson et al., eds, Climate Change: Mitigation. Contribution of Working

Group III to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Cambridge, UK:

Cambridge University Press, 2007), 511.

Meredith Niles, “Sustainable Soils: Reducing, Mitigating, and Adapting to Climate Change with Organic

Agriculture,” Sustainable Development Law and Policy, 2008: 20. H. A. DeRamus et al., “Methane Emissions of

Beef Cattle on Forages: Efficiency of Grazing Management Systems,” Journal of Environmental Quality 32 (2003).

David Pimentel, Impacts of Organic Farming on the Efficiency of Energy Use in Agriculture (Ithaca, NY: Organic

Center, 2006), 9.

Eating sustainably

Environmental Impact Emory University

26

Energy and food production

The American food supply is driven almost entirely by non-renewable energy sources and

accounts for approximately 19% of the total use of fossil fuels in the United States. It takes

about 7.3 units of (primarily) fossil energy to produce one unit of food energy in the U.S. food

system.

Source: University of Michigan, Center for Sustainable Systems (http://www.umich.edu/~css)

This pie chart represents energy expenditures related to food production in the United States:

home refrigeration and preparation is responsible for about 30%; agricultural production, 20%;

transport, 13% percent; and packaging, 6%.

 One tomato can travel over 2,500 miles to end up in the produce aisle at your nearest

grocery store. If you buy from local farmers that tomato may only travel about 60 miles.

 By purchasing locally, you can reduce the energy required for transportation.

Fossil fuels and industrial farming

A 2002 study from the John Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health estimated that, using

our current system, an average of three calories of energy were needed to create one calorie of

edible food. Some foods require far more, such as grain-fed beef, which requires 35 calories for

every calorie of beef produced.

However, the study did not include the energy used in

Home

Refrigeration&

Preparation

31.7%

FoodRetail

4.0%

Packaging6.9%

Restaurants&

Caterers6.9%

Transport

13.9%

Agricultural

Production

20.8%

Processing

15.8%

EnergyExpenditures

RelatedtoFoodProduction

Eating sustainably

Environmental Impact Emory University

27

processing and transporting food. Studies that do include such factors estimate that it takes an

average of 7 to 10 calories of input energy to produce one calorie of food.

Accounting for most of this wasteful equation are the industrial practices upon which our food

system is built. These include inefficient growing practices, food processing and storage, as well

as our system of transporting food thousands of miles between the field and the end consumer.

Growing practices

The biggest culprit of fossil fuel usage in industrial farming is not transporting food or fueling

machinery; it is the production of chemicals for fertilizers. As much as 40% of energy used in

the food system goes towards the production of artificial fertilizers and pesticides.

Fertilizers are

synthesized from atmospheric nitrogen and natural gas, a process that takes a significant amount

of energy. Producing and distributing them requires an average of 5.5 gallons of fossil fuels per

acre.

Nitrogen-based fertilizers contribute directly to global warming. Making and transporting

one kilogram of nitrogen in a fertilizer releases 3.7 kg of carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

Packaging, processing, and storing food

Approximately 23% of the energy used in our food production system is allocated to processing

and packaging food.

Another 32% is burned in home refrigeration and cooking.

While no study

has quantified the potential energy savings of buying locally, the practice of eating whole foods

generally decreases the use of fossil fuels for processing, packaging, and storing foods. For

example, compare all the energy and packaging behind a can of tomato sauce to simply buying

some tomatoes, basil, and garlic, and making it oneself.

Food transportation

As a result of industrial farming, our food is increasingly grown in concentration in specific areas

of the country. This is so common that it has shaped much of our country’s geographic

identities—the western Plains are wheat country, the Midwest is the Corn Belt—but it has

reached extremes. For instance, approximately 90% of all the fresh vegetables consumed in the

United States are grown in California’s San Joaquin Valley.

This national-scale system is possible only because it uses large quantities of fossil fuels to

transport food products to the consumer. It is now common practice to ship food not just around

the country, but around the world. As a result, the average American food travels an estimated

1,500 miles before being consumed.

Energy inputs in the food production system

The three main purposes for which oil is used worldwide are food, transport, and heating.

Agriculture is almost entirely dependent on reliable supplies of oil for cultivation and for

pumping water, and on gas for its fertilizers. For every calorie of energy used by agriculture

itself, five more are used for processing, storage and distribution.

 Oil refined for gasoline and diesel is critical to run the tractors, combines and other farm

vehicles and equipment that plant, spray the herbicides and pesticides, as well as harvest

and transport food and seed

 Food processors rely on the just-in-time (gasoline-based) delivery of fresh or

refrigerated food

Eating sustainably

Environmental Impact Emory University

28

 Food processors rely on the production and delivery of food additives, including

vitamins and minerals, emulsifiers, preservatives, coloring agents, etc. Many are oil-

based. Delivery is oil-based.

 Food processors rely on the production and delivery of boxes, metal cans, printed paper

labels, plastic trays, cellophane for microwave/convenience foods, glass jars, plastic and

metal lids with sealing compounds. Many of these are essentially oil-based.

 Delivery of finished food products to distribution centers in refrigerated trucks. Oil-

based, daily, just-in-time shipment of food to grocery stores, restaurants, hospitals,

schools, etc., all oil-based; customer drives to grocery store to shop for supplies, often

several times a week

What you can do

 Buy foods grown locally. The equation is simple: the closer the farm is to you, the less fuel is

needed to transport its food to your table. You can find local foods through our Eat Well Guide,

by visiting a local farmers market, or by joining a food co-op or Community Supported

Agriculture (CSA) group. Ask your grocery store to supply locally grown produce.

 Want to have lettuce that is truly local? Plant a garden and grow your own fresh produce!

 Avoid purchasing processed foods. These foods take more energy to produce and have less

nutritional value than whole foods. In addition, choose foods with minimal packaging. This

reduces the energy used to produce the packaging and eliminates these materials from the waste

stream.

 Cut back on meat. As much as Americans love to eat it, meat is the least fuel-efficient food we

have. Large quantities of energy are required to cultivate, harvest, and ship animal feed, house,

transport and slaughter animals, process and package their meat, and refrigerate it until it is

cooked.

Daphne Norton for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Heller, Martin C., and Gregory A. Keoleian. Life Cycle-Based Sustainability Indicators for Assessment of the U.S.

Food System. Ann Arbor, MI: Center for Sustainable Systems, University of Michigan, 2000: 42.

Horrigan, Leo, Robert S. Lawrence, and Polly Walker. "How Sustainable Agriculture Can Address the

Environmental and Human Health Harms of Industrial Agriculture." Environmental Health Perspectives 110, no. 5

(May 5, 2002) (accessed August 29, 2006).

Heeter, Chad, "The Oil in Your Oatmeal: A Lot of Fossil Fuel Goes into Producing, Packaging and Shipping Our

Breakfast," San Francisco Chronicle, March 26, 2006.

Murray, Danielle. Oil and Food: A Rising Security Challenge, May 9, 2005

<www.energybulletin.net/node/5045>

<http://www.sustainabletable.org/issues/energy/#>

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Eating sustainably

Animal welfare Emory University

29

Animal welfare and factory farms

Animal welfare is an issue of ethical obligation as much as one of science. It is an ethical

concept to which science brings relevant data.

In the 1970s, the Farm Animal Welfare Council

(FAWC) of Britain stated that “the welfare of an animal includes its physical and mental state

and we consider good animal welfare implies both fitness and a sense of well being. Any animal

kept by man, must at least be protected from unnecessary suffering”.

Five Freedoms were

outlined.

Five Freedoms

1. Freedom from hunger and thirst through access to fresh water and a diet to maintain

complete health and energy.

2. Freedom from discomfort through the provision of an appropriate environment including

shelter and a comfortable place to rest.

3. Freedom from pain, injury or disease through prevention, rapid diagnosis and treatment.

4. Freedom to express normal behavior through the provision of adequate space, proper

facilities and ability to be with animals of the same kind.

5. Freedom from fear and distress through conditions and treatment that avoid mental

suffering.

Animal welfare has also been described in the context of three equally balanced, related

principles.

Emphasis on any one principle alone will lead to de-emphasis of the others.

 Basic health and functioning – animals should have freedom from disease and

injury and should have food, water and shelter.

 Affective states – refers to emotions and feelings experienced by the animal such as

pleasant or unpleasant.

 Naturalness – animals should be able to perform their natural behaviors. There should be

natural elements in their environment as well as respect for the “nature” of the animals

themselves.

In contrast, a report of the Council for Agricultural Science and Technology (CAST)

, first

published by US agricultural scientists in the 1980s, states that what animals are owed and the

extent to which we owe them is whatever it takes to get them to create profit. A productive

animal enjoys positive welfare and a non-productive animal enjoys poor welfare. Animals are

considered well off if they have food, water and shelter.

These opposing views of animal

welfare mirror the difference in the lives of animals on small family farms compared to the lives

of animals on today’s intensive factory farms.

Intensive Factory Farms vs. Small Family Farms

In response to increases in both the population and the consumption of meat products, the US

livestock industry has intensified according to a productionist model emphasizing efficiency.

Intensive factory farms have replaced small family farms, the relationship between the farmer

Eating sustainably

Animal welfare Emory University

30

and the animals has changed, and the emphasis has shifted from the five freedoms and balanced

principles outlined above to one of productivity.

Confinement of large numbers of animals indoors is one hallmark of the factory farm. Indoor

housing has eliminated some problems animals may experience when housed outdoors such as

extreme weather and attacks by predators, yet intense confinement has created animal welfare

problems. Inadequate ventilation, which leads to high levels of dust and the accumulation of

irritating gases from the build-up of manure make it difficult to breathe. If the electrical supply is

interrupted, the level of heat can build quickly. Concrete and metal flooring can cause slippery

conditions, uncomfortable resting places and put stress on hooves and joints causing lameness.

This paper reviews the conditions under which selected animals are raised and slaughtered as

part of the factory farm business of today.

Poultry

Poultry production is the most highly intensified of all the agricultural industries.

The barnyard

hen that once provided both the eggs and the meat for the table does not exist on the factory

farm. Chickens are raised to be laying hens or broilers in close confinement.

Laying Hens and Confinement Cages

Factory egg farming consists of endless rows of cages (called battery cages) located in long

sheds where tens of thousands of hens may be housed in one shed in cages of 3 to 10 hens each.

“An egg laying hen requires 290 square inches to flap her wings, yet each bird is allocated an

average of only 52 square inches–smaller than a single sheet of paper-in which she sleeps, eats,

lays eggs, drinks and defecates.”

The cages are so small the hens cannot stretch their wings,

walk, peck, or scratch the ground. Under these conditions, the hens are prevented from

performing natural behaviors such as perching, dust bathing, and laying their eggs in a nest.

Inactivity causes claws to grow long and, in some cases, to become permanently entwined in the

wire mesh flooring. The slope of the cage floor, designed to allow eggs to roll into a trough for

collection, places pressure on the hen’s toes causing damage.

Feather loss is common from

hens rubbing against the sides of the cage.

The stress of crowding and confinement can lead hens to feather peck one another. To prevent

this situation, the front third of the beak is removed (called “debeaking” or “beak trimming”).

Part of the toes may also be removed so the hens cannot scratch one another. Both processes are

performed without anesthesia.

6,9

To increase egg production in individual hens, food is withheld for a period of 8 to 12 days after

the end of the first laying cycle to force molting.

This leads to another cycle of egg laying. Once

the hen is considered spent, she is killed.

About 1/3 of flocks in the US egg laying industry are affected by “caged layer fatigue.” The

condition is caused by the continuing demand for calcium for eggshell production, which leaves

bones brittle and muscles depleted of calcium. The result is that birds may be unable to stand

and reach food and water. This condition occurs in caged birds only and is caused by lack of

exercise and exacerbated by crowding.

Eating sustainably

Animal welfare Emory University

31

Male chicks hatched as part of the breeding process for laying hens are considered a by-product

of the industry and killed within 24 hours using gas or by placing them alive in a high speed

grinding machine.

The European Union Council of Agriculture Ministers has banned

conventional battery cages beginning in 2012 due to concern about the welfare of the hens.

Broilers

Broiler chickens are raised in windowless sheds where as many as 50,000 birds are quickly

fattened over a period of 3 to 12 weeks and sent to slaughter when they reach a market weight of

4 pounds. With nowhere to rest, except on feces-laden litter, the birds may develop breast

blisters, hock burns or other skin problems.

Consumer preference for white meat has encouraged raising birds with large breasts. As a result,

the birds can become top heavy leading them to fall over and suddenly die (called “Acute Death

Syndrome” or “Flip-Over Syndrome”).

Fast growth in broilers can also be associated with

health problems such as ascites (pulmonary hypertension).

Veal

Veal production is considered by many to be the cruelest of all the confinement systems. Young

calves are separated from their mothers and placed in wooden crates (called confinement stalls)

where they spend 18 to 20 weeks before slaughter. The space is barely larger than the calf, who

is also tied at the neck or has his head positioned between parallel bars to further restrict

movement. The calf is fed a diet of “milk replacer,” a liquid mixture of dried milk products,

starch, fat, sugar, antibiotics and other additives. The diet is purposely iron deficient to induce a

subclinical anemia to make the flesh as white as possible. Roughage is not permitted in the diet

as it could darken the meat. The limited size of the crate assures the animal cannot lick his own

hair, urine or feces in an attempt to satisfy his desire for iron.

Swine

Sows (pregnant hogs) are kept in metal bar gestation stalls, known as crates for their entire 4-

month gestation period. The small size of the crate does not permit the sow to exercise or turn

around. Bedding material is not provided and the sow is forced to stand or lie on a floor made of

concrete or slats. The slats allow for manure to fall to the floor below, for easier removal. About

a week before the piglets are due, the sow is moved to a narrow “farrowing crate.” The crate

permits her to stand and lie down, but not turn around. The purpose is to allow her to eat and

drink only while keeping her teats exposed for the piglets to nurse.

In a natural environment, sows spend up to 75% of their time rooting in the dirt, foraging and

exploring, but confinement prevents these behaviors. The resulting stress leads some animals to

demonstrate meaningless repetitive motions, called stereotypies, such as moving their head from

side to side.

The diet of the sow is restricted to rations of concentrated feed that provide their nutritional

requirements, but lack the bulk required to satisfy hunger. Confinement eliminates the ability to

satisfy hunger by seeking additional food. The European Union has banned the use of gestation

stalls by 2013 as part of their commitment to animal welfare and sustainable agriculture. (7)

Eating sustainably

Animal welfare Emory University

32

Cattle

Beef Cattle

Cattle raised for beef stay with their mothers and are pasture fed until the age of 3 to 4 months

when they are transported to a Confined Animal Feeding Operation (CAFO). There they are fed

a high-energy grain diet for 4 to 6 months prior to being slaughtered. Stress from crowding and

an unnatural diet adversely affect health. Liver abscesses can occur because the digestive tract is

geared toward a diet of roughage and not a steady diet of grain and growth stimulants. Cattle

raised for beef may be subjected to de-horning, branding and castration without anesthesia.

Dairy Cows

Most milk produced in the US comes from cows in intensive confinement, commonly tethered to

a stall. Increasingly popular are dry lots composed of dirt or concrete lots, devoid of vegetation

and often without shade. Partial tail “docking” (amputation) is common practice. Ostensibly

performed for the purpose of cleanliness, docking is actually performed to make it easier for

workers to milk the cows.

6,9

Docking the tail eliminates the ability of the cow to switch away

flies and bugs.

Slaughterhouses

In 1958, Congress passed the Humane Slaughter Act (HSA) and broadened it in 1978 to include

regulatory oversight by the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA). One of the most

important provisions of the Act is “the requirement that all animals be rendered unconscious with

just one application of an effective stunning device by a trained person before being shackled

and hoisted up on the line.” When inspectors observe violations, they are required to stop the line

until the violation is corrected. Because “down time” leads to loss of money, it is assumed the

slaughterhouse will comply. Penalties, however, do not exist for violations, thus the threat of

financial loss may supersede concern for animal welfare. Stories exist of violations uncorrected

and conditions such as the use of electrical prods, animals dragged through the race (chute) to

slaughter, inadequate stunning due to high production quotas, rapid line speeds and animals

shackled and hung on the line and skinned while conscious.

Auditing of slaughterhouse practices by some large restaurant chains has begun to lead to

change. One study has demonstrated that the degree of stress experienced by cattle can be

assessed by measuring the level of vocalization when moving through the chute to slaughter.

When cattle are stressed, vocalization increases. Cattle may vocalize and refuse to move forward

when they see people up ahead are moving into a dark area, have a sense they are going over a

cliff, feel air moving against their face or see shiny objects. When animals balk, workers use

electric prods to move them forward. Eliminating the environmental stimuli that cause the

animals to balk reduces the need for prods and reduces vocalization.

Alternatives to Factory Farming

The World Society for the Protection of Animals (WSPA) is an excellent resource on animal

welfare issues and alternatives to factory farming.

Also available are standards for the raising

of broilers, laying hens, beef cattle, dairy cattle, pigs and sheep.

General industry guidelines

are compared to standards for the following certifications:

 Certified Organic (U.S. Department of Agriculture)

 Certified Humane (Humane Farm Animal Care)

Eating sustainably

Animal welfare Emory University

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 American Humane Certified (American Humane Association)

 Animal Welfare Approved (Animal Welfare Institute) – this is the most stringent of

 the certifications.

Summary

In summary, animal welfare is viewed by some as both a scientific and an ethical issue, while

others feel that animal welfare exists if only food, water and shelter are available and the animal

is productive. While debate exists about whether the conditions animals experience under

factory farming raise ethical or welfare concerns, Emory’s commitment to sustainability supports

the Five Freedoms.

Lynne Ometer for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Rollin, RE. Ethics and euthanasia. Can. Vet. J. 2009; 50: 1081-1086.

FAWC (Farm Animal Welfare Council). The Five Freedoms. 1979; http://www.fawc.org.uk/freedoms.htm.

Fraser, D. Understanding animal welfare. Acta Veternaria Scan. 2008; 50:S1.

CAST (Council for Agricultural Science and Technology), Scientific Aspects of the Welfare of Food Animals.

1981:19.

Hinrichs, C.C. and Welsh, R. The effects of the industrialization of US livestock agriculture on promoting

sustainable production practices. Agriculture and Human Values. 2003; 20: 125-141.

Fraser, D., Mench, J. and Millman, S. Farm animals and their welfare in 2000. In: State of the Animals. 2001;

Humane Society.org.

Druce, C. and Lymbery, P. Outlawed in Europe. In: Singer, P. (Ed) In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave.

Carlton, Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing; 2006, pp.123-131.

Park, M. Opening cages, opening eyes. In: Singer, P. (Ed), In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave. Carlton,

Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing; 2006; pp. 174-180.

Mason, J. and Finelli, M. Brave new farm? In: Singer, P. (Ed) In Defense of Animals: The Second Wave. Carlton,

Victoria, Australia: Blackwell Publishing; 2006; pp. 104-122.

Eisnitz, G.A. Slaughterhouse. Amherst, New York: Prometheus Books; 1997.

Grandin, T. Cattle vocalizations are associated with handling and equipment problems at beef slaughter plants.

Applied Animal Behavior Science. 2001; 71(3): 191-201.

http://www.wspa-usa.org Accessed April 2010.

http://www.wspa-usa.org/pages/2500_comparing_food_labeling_programs.cfm Last accessed April 2010.

Additional references

Niman, N.H. Righteous Porkchop. New York, New York: Harper Collins Publishers, 2009.

Grandin, T. and Johnson, C. Animals Make Us Human. Boston and New York: Houghton Mifflin Harcourt; 2010.



Eating sustainably

Grassfed livestock Emory University

34

Grass-fed livestock

The sustainability of grass-fed versus conventionally raised livestock may be compared across

three major domains:

1. Environmental impact

2. Human health

3. Cost

Environmental impact

Renewable vs. non-renewable energy inputs. Conventional production relies on heavy inputs of

fossil fuels in the production of fertilizer and use of machinery to maximize yields of grain,

which are in turn fed to livestock. Grass-based systems, in contrast, utilize solar energy to

produce grass with minimal input of fossil fuels. Total energy input (largely from fossil fuels)

for conventional systems are approximately 60% higher than for pastured livestock.

Agroecological balance. Conventional production often removes animals from the farm in favor

of confined animal feeding operations (CAFOs). Within this system, animals are raised on a

grain-based diet, producing manure at levels much greater than the surrounding land can absorb.

In grass-based systems, animals are raised on the farm in numbers supportable by the farm.

Additionally, pastured livestock often contribute to the overall health and balance of a farm by

consuming grass from land unfit for crops or by-products of harvested crops otherwise wasted.

Miscellaneous. The stomachs of livestock species have evolved to digest and absorb nutrition

from grass. However, when raised on a largely grain-based diet many livestock develop acid

reflux, abscesses within the gastrointestinal tract, and chronic infection.

In addition to

positively affecting the animal’s health relative to a conventional grain-based diet, livestock

raised on pasture provide the additional environmental benefit of decreased soil erosion and

increased soil fertility, and improved water quality as a result of decreased pollution.

Human health

Fatty acids. Grain-fed beef is fattier and more highly concentrated in the saturated fats most

often associated with heart disease, diabetes, stroke, and cancer. In contrast, grass-fed beef is

leaner with a greater percentage of omega-3 fatty acids, those least associated with disease.

Antibiotics. The Union of Concerned Scientists estimates that over 70% of antibiotics produced

within the U.S. are used in animal production to minimize infectious disease and optimize rates

of growth.

The systematic administration of antibiotics is most common in the conventional

system where the spread of disease between confined animals is a constant danger. Many of

these drugs are similar to human antibiotics and their continued use within industrial animal

production fosters antibiotic resistance.

Cost

True costs. While conventionally raised meat and dairy products remain significantly cheaper

than grass-based products, the true costs remain hidden. Consumers pay for these products in

Eating sustainably

Grassfed livestock Emory University

35

several ways beyond the grocery store, including tax dollars that subsidize the production of

grain, increased health care costs, and ecological degradation and pollution, to name a few.

These are costs not associated with grass-based systems for the production of meat and dairy,

but are generated by the conventional production of livestock based on grain. These costs are

not borne by the industry and passed directly to the consumer. They are passed indirectly to

everyone as governmental agencies foot the bill for sewage, water treatment and environmental

cleanup. As a result, the choice to purchase or consume meat and dairy from grass-fed systems

shifts the market away from a system in which the true costs of production are hidden.

Bryce Carlson for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Pimentel D, Oltenacu PA, Nesheim MC, Krummel J, Allen MS, and Chick S (1980) The Potential for Grass-Fed

Livestock: Resource Constraints. Science 207:843-848

American Public Health Association (2003) 2003-7 Precautionary Moratorium on New Concentrated Animal

Feed Operations: Association News: American Public Health Association

Russell JB, Rychlik JL (2001) Factors That Alter Rumen Microbial Ecology. Science 282: 1119-1122

Walker P, Rhubart-Berg P, McKenzie S, Kelling K, and Lawrence RS (2005) Public health implications of meat

production and consumption. Public Health Nutrition 8:348-356

Clancy K (2006) Greener Pastures: How grass-fed beef and milk contribute to healthy eating. Cambridge, MA:

Union of Concerned Scientists

Walker P, Rhubart-Berg P, McKenzie S, Kelling K, and Lawrence RS (2005) Public health implications of meat

production and consumption. Public Health Nutrition 8:348-356

Additional references

American Public Health Association (2003) 2003-7 Precautionary Moratorium on New Concentrated Animal Feed

Operations: Association News: American Public Health Association.

Clancy K (2006) Greener Pastures: How grass-fed beef and milk contribute to healthy eating. Cambridge, MA:

Union of Concerned Scientists.

Pimentel D, Oltenacu PA, Nesheim MC, Krummel J, Allen MS, and Chick S (1980) The Potential for Grass-Fed

Livestock: Resource Constraints. Science 207:843-848.

Walker P, Rhubart-Berg P, McKenzie S, Kelling K, and Lawrence RS (2005) Public health implications of meat

production and consumption. Public Health Nutrition 8:348-356.

Eating sustainably

Sustainable Seafood Emory University

36

Sustainable seafood

Health of the Oceans

We are currently in the middle of, and responsible for, the largest mass extinction of species on

Earth since an asteroid wiped out the dinosaurs nearly 65 million years ago. Expert scientists

estimate that 50% of Earth’s species will have vanished within the next 100 years. Nowhere is

this trend more evident than in the oceans.

National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration statistics indicate that each quarter since

reporting began in 2005 our fisheries have become more overfished and less sustainable. Yet

regular fish consumption is recommended by medical and health practitioners to reduce risk for a

number of chronic diseases.

Growing concern over the health impact of mercury contamination in wild and farmed fish has

stimulated questions about the risks and benefits of consumption. It is the most toxic non-

radioactive material on Earth, and poisoning results in impairment of vision, touch sensations,

lack of coordination of movements, impairment of speech, hearing, and walking.

Mercury

concentrations within wild and farmed fish differ by species and method of production or

harvest. Carnivorous species are most highly contaminated, while those species lowest on the

food chain are least concentrated in mercury. As a result, optimal health benefits accrue to those

individuals making choices that minimize intake of highly contaminated species and consume

lower on the aquatic food chain.

Health of the Consumers

Studies of the costs and benefits of fish consumption reveal that moderate intake of 1-2 servings

per week reduce the risk of heart attack, stroke, coronary death and total mortality.

Numerous

epidemiologic studies have also reported that fish consumption may protect against some

cancers, asthma, diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis and other inflammatory diseases, Alzheimer’s

disease, depression, and macular degeneration.

Seafood Watch: Monterey Bay Aquarium

The Monterey Bay Aquarium has targeted regional species whose fisheries generally fall in line

with sustainable practices.

Practices are assessed with reference to a number of factors

including -- but not limited to -- habitat damage, bycatch, overfishing, and impact of practices

upon the local environment. These reports are compiled to formulate recommendations for “best

choices”, “good alternatives”, and those items to “avoid”.

“Best choices” for Southeast consumers include: Pacific Cod (wild longlined), Pacific Halibut,

Salmon (Alaska, wild), Tilapia (US farmed), and Tuna: Albacore (US).

Species to “avoid” in the Southeast include: Caviar (Sturgeon, imported wild), Cod (Atlantic),

Mahi mahi, Orange Roughy, Salmon (farmed, including Atlantic), Shrimp (imported), and Tuna

(Bluefin, canned)

Eating sustainably

Sustainable Seafood Emory University

37

Marine Stewardship Council

The Marine Stewardship Council offers official certification for fisheries and producers of

sustainable seafood.

Consumers can be sure that seafood carrying the MSC label comes from

a certified sustainable fishery, that each business along the supply chain has undergone a

traceability audit, and meets best practice guidelines set forth in the MSC standards. Where the

Monterey Bay Aquarium offers general guidelines at the species level based on common

practices for each region of the United States, the Marine Stewardship Council certifies specific

fisheries in compliance with their standard for sustainable fishing and tracks each product from

harvest to consumer.

Bryce Carlson for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

http://www.epa.gov/hg/effects.htm

Bouzan C, Cohen JT, Connor WE, Kris-Etherton PM, Gray GM, Konig A, Lawrence RS, Savitz DA, Teutsch SM

(2005) A Quantitative Analysis of Fish Consumption and Stroke Risk. American Journal of Preventive Medicine

29(4):347-352

Mozaffarian D, Rimm EB (2006) Fish intake, contaminants, and human health. JAMA 296:1885-1899

http://www.mbayaq.org/cr/seafoodwatch.asp

http://www.msc.org/

Eating sustainably

Local food Emory University

38

Choosing local food

What is “local”?

There is no universal definition for “local” food. Many people use a 100-mile radius to define

local.

Emory has defined local in two tiers to meet our sustainable food initiative goals for

purchasing: 1. Georgia, and 2. the eight-state Southern region including Florida, South Carolina,

North Carolina, Tennessee, Kentucky, Alabama, and Mississippi. When possible, food is

purchased from within Georgia, but the broader region recognizes the limits of the Georgia

growing season.

Benefits of local food

Economic

Buying local food keeps dollars circulating in the local community. Getting to know the farmers

who grow your food builds relationships based on understanding and trust, the foundation of

strong communities. Independent, family-owned farms supply more local jobs and contribute to

the local economy at higher rates than do large, corporate-owned farms. However, it is important

to remember that local food can be produced on farms of any scale.

Shopping at farmers markets and farm stands or joining a farm’s Community Supported

Agriculture (CSA) program are ways to purchase directly from the farmer. Consumers can

promote the local food economy by asking grocery store managers if they sell any local food

items and encourage them to do so if they do not already. Restaurant goers can patronize

restaurants that utilize local food and support local farmers.

Freshness

Most fruit and vegetable varieties sold in supermarkets are chosen for their ability to withstand

industrial harvesting equipment and extended travel, not taste. Since local food does not have to

be transported long distances, local farmers can offer produce varieties bred for taste and

freshness rather than for shipping and long shelf life.

Health

Knowing where food comes from and how it is grown or raised enables the consumer to choose

food from farmers who avoid or reduce their use of chemicals, pesticides, hormones, antibiotics,

or genetically modified seed in their operations.

However, not all local farmers avoid such

practices as pesticide use or supplementary hormones, so it is important to buy food from

farmers who produce food in a manner that is consistent with your values.

Environment

Local food does not have to travel far. This reduces carbon dioxide emissions and packing

materials. However, some food that is grown locally may be transported long distances for

processing. Buying local food also helps to make farming more profitable and selling farmland

for development less attractive. Consumers vote with their food dollar when they purchase local

food. This ensures that local farms will continue to thrive.

Eating sustainably

Local food Emory University

39

Where to find local food

Georgia Organics has several resources for consumers looking for locally grown food. Their

Organic Directory and Local Food Guide (http://georgiaorganics.org/organic_directory/) lists

Georgia farmers’ markets, CSAs, and businesses that promote local and sustainable food.

They

also have a Google Map of their Local Food Guide that easily provides driving directions to

farms and CSA locations, farmers’ markets, restaurants with local food, and grocers and specialty

retailers.

Summary

Purchase and consumption of local food has numerous benefits. However, the production of

local food does not necessarily include sustainable farming practices or ethical treatment of farm

workers. Local food is not automatically fresher or better for the environment.

Local food can

be produced on large conventional farms, but building relationships with local farmers to learn

about their growing practices is the best way to ensure that your local food is grown in a

sustainable and ethical manner.

Emily Cumbie-Drake for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

DeWeerdt, Sarah. 2009. Is Local Food Better? World Watch 22(3): 6-10.

Emory University Office of Sustainability. <http://sustainability.emory.edu/page/1008/Sustainable-Food>

Buy Fresh Buy Local California. http://guide.buylocalca.org/whyLocal.html

Georgia Organics, Organic Directory. <http://georgiaorganics.org/organic_directory/>

Georgia Organics, Local Food Guide (Google Map).

<http://maps.google.com/maps/ms?hl=en&ie=UTF8&msa=0&msid=117467117957426399944.0004468dbe7c241b

66e6c&z=9>

DeWeerdt, Sarah. 2009. Local Food: The Economics. World Watch 22(4): 20-24.

Eating sustainably

Economic Impact Emory University

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Sustainable food purchasing and the Georgia economy

Buying local food can contribute to local economies and Emory’s investment in Georgia-grown and –

raised foods has positive implications for job growth across the state.

Georgia’s agricultural economy

Between 1945-2007, the number of farms decreased by almost 80%. The average farm size in Georgia

doubled from 105 to 212 acres, though many commercial farms top 500 acres. Georgia farmers earned

$546 million less from food production in 2006 than they did in 1969 (dollars adjusted for inflation).

Currently, Georgia consumers purchase $19.9 billion of food each year, of which $16 billion is

purchased from out of state

, reflecting global changes and an increasingly centralized food production

and distribution. The number of egg and poultry farms has increased in Georgia

, while the number of

farms selling fresh vegetables has decreased.

Georgia farm income has declined approximately 6.4%

since 2002.

In summary, the decrease in the number of farms and the ability to purchase food more cheaply from

outside the state or from overseas has had a negative impact on Georgia’s agricultural economy.

Continued reliance on conventional agriculture does not present an optimistic scenario for state

economic health.

Trends and consequences to communities

The trend for many decades has been to replace human labor with machinery, to reduce labor costs, and

allow farm families to operate more acreage. Interest rates for land and equipment make farmers

vulnerable in price downturns, and economic challenges have led many viable large-scale family farms

to be unable to continue in farming in the next generation.

At present, the average age of Georgia

farmers is 58. The loss of commercial farms has consequences for the Georgia economy. For example,

when Georgia dairy farmers quit farming, Georgians begin to import milk from other states.

Furniture

stores, local banks, and car dealerships all suffer when the farm economy contracts.

Small-scale farms are more likely to employ human labor and rely less on machinery. Small,

independent farms, shops and restaurants are more likely to sell locally-made products to the

community.

Investing in local agriculture can be good news for rural development. A study by Ohio

State University of one county near Columbus, Ohio, found that with a 10% increase in purchases of

local foods in grocery stores and restaurants, the county could expect to see 243 new jobs, increased tax

revenues of over $300,000 and almost $4,000,000 added income to local residents.

Wages paid at

every stage, from production, to processing, to retail, benefit the workers and their local economy.

Economic barriers

The primary challenge Georgia’s smaller-scale farmers and food producers report facing is distribution.

Farmers are able to grow the food, but demand still outweighs supply due to logistical problems and

insufficient information among producers. Marketing and transportation are costly and difficult, small-

scale producers are rarely able to assume the cost of required liability insurance, and farmers are not

confident that they can sell what they grow when consumers can buy produce from Mexico more

cheaply.

Eating sustainably

Economic Impact Emory University

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Georgia’s fishing industry also faces challenges in distributing product to buyers in the north and west

parts of the state. Many of Georgia’s small, independent, family-owned fishing businesses cannot afford

the cost of moving their product inland, when interstate commercial truckers are willing to come directly

to the docks.

If Emory, a major food service provider in Atlanta, demands local and fresh seafood and

other products from the rural counties, we can encourage specialized food distributors to supplement the

cost of liability and transportation.

How Emory can impact Georgia’s economy

Local food systems support small farmers, especially in rural communities where farmers have difficulty

connecting to customers. Emory understands the physical and economic barriers to moving Georgia

produce from rural farms and fisheries to our urban campus. Our commitment to purchasing Georgia-

grown and –raised foods 1) assures farmers, especially of small- and medium-scale farms, that their

produce has a market, and 2) encourages investment in processing, distribution, and retail of Georgia-

grown and –raised foods. The largest employer in Dekalb County, Emory served 1.1 million meals in

2009. As Emory partners with state and local entities to tackle and solve supply and distribution

problems, the entire state can benefit. As the number of small farms and farmers markets continues to

expand in metro Atlanta, access to fresher, local produce expands as well.

Stacy Bell for the Sustainable Food Committee at Emory University

Georgia Statistics System: Time Series Analysis http://www.georgiastats.uga.edu/timeseries1.html

Bureau of Labor Statistics; Food Consumption Estimates; http://www.bls.gov/cex/home.htm

US Census of Agriculture, GA, for 2007:

(source: US Census of Ag, 2009. Georgia State and County Data. Vol. 1 Part 10. US govt printing office.)

GA Ag Forecast: Financial Outlook for Georgia Farms, Cesar L. Escalante, UGA;

http://www.caes.uga.edu/events/agforecast/support/GeorgiaFarms.pdf

Barlett. “Industrial Agriculture.” Economic Anthropology. Ed. Stuart Plattner. Stanford: Stanford Univ. Press, 1989.

Flanders, Archie et al. “Economic Importance of the Georgia Dairy Industry.” Center for Agribusiness and Economic

Development. The University of Georgia College of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences. July 2006.

Norberg-Hidge et al. Bringing the Food Economy Home. London: Zed Books, 2002.

Filipic, Martha. 2009. “Economic Analysis of Knox County Local Food System Offers Blueprint for Nation,” based on Jeff

Sharp, Howard Sacks, and Amalie Lipstreu, 2009, "Planting the Seeds of Sustainable Economic Development: Knox

County's Local Food System." http://sri.osu.edu/pdf/Knox_County_Assessment_Summary-200908.pdf. Accessed 3-4-10.)

Christine McCauley, Morgan County Conservancy.

Welander, Suzanne. The Turbulent Waters of Georgia’s Sustainable Seafood. http://www.restaurantinformer.com. October

2008.

Eating sustainably

Farm Workers Emory University

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Impact on Farm Workers

As we seek to support a more sustainable farming

system, the welfare of farm workers is an important

component. We focus here on issues related to crop

production including nursery and greenhouse

workers in the United States, although those

involved in animal production have similar issues.

Although we focus only on US farmworkers,

international farmworkers may have similar or more

severe issues.



An estimate of about 1.5 million crop farm workers in the US help plant, cultivate, harvest and

prepare crops for market or storage.

Migrant farm workers travel from place to place to work in

agriculture and move into temporary housing while working; seasonal farm workers work

primarily in agriculture, but live in one community year-round. Some farm workers are full-time

residents and have annual employment on one farm. Estimates of total farm workers are

historically difficult because they often work by season or may be hired through a third-party.

Up to three-quarters of all crop farm workers may be unauthorized immigrant workers, making

official estimates especially difficult.



Farm worker protection practices. Farm workers have historically been exempt from fair

worker practices such as minimum wage and child labor laws making them largely underpaid

for their labor. They are exempt from the National Labor Relations Act of 1935 which protects

workers acting collectively to form a union. The Fair Labor Standards Act initially excluded all

farm workers although in 1978 it was amended to include minimum wage standards for workers

on large farms only.

Most workers are typically not entitled to overtime benefits, regular rest,

or meal breaks. Data collected from 2005 to 2009 showed that about one-third of all farm

workers earned less than $7.25/hour with over three-quarters working less than nine months the

previous year.

One-quarter of all farm workers had total family incomes below the poverty

level.

Child labor is rampant among farm workers; as many as 800,000 farm workers in the US are

under the age of 18 years.

Federal laws permit children as young as 12 years to provide farm

labor with some limited restrictions on activities and hours worked. However, enforcement of

these child labor laws is almost non-existent making it difficult to determine employer

compliance with these laws.

Farm labor contractors serve as intermediaries between growers and laborers and are

responsible for supplying up to 75% of the farm labor force.

Although regulated by the US

Department of Labor under the Migrant and Seasonal Agricultural Worker Protection Act, such

contractors’ practices are not transparent. Many operate illegally in the US with little threat of

interference. Furthermore, farmers use contractors as worker intermediaries to reduce their own

supervisory workload. The practice permits some farmers to plead ignorance as to the working

conditions and wages on their farms. Again, the lack of oversight prevents the collection of valid

data to evaluate these contractors’ roles in farm worker protection practices.

Figure 1. Farm worker exposure to pesticides

during application is common

Eating sustainably

Farm Workers Emory University

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In addition to the lack of regulatory protection, many farm workers face daily physical hazards

such as sub-standard housing and unsafe transportation. The Agricultural Workers Protection

Act regulates housing and transportation practices for the few farmers that provide these to their

workers, however, unsafe practices are reportedly common partly because of weak enforcement.

Other issues facing farm workers include lack of unemployment insurance or worker

compensation protections, and lack of basic safety standards on farms. Almost 90% of farms are

not inspected for basic health and safety violations and almost one-third are not even subject to

protection under the Occupational Safety and Health Administration standards.

Because farm

workers have exclusivity contracts with some contractors or farm owners, there is the risk of

forced labor to avoid deportation. Recent public attention to labor trafficking has revealed

abuses in all regions across the country.

Physical and Social Stressors. Farm workers are a largely marginalized population because of

their mobility, and some lack fluency in English and official documentation. Recent research

suggests widespread sexual harassment is another danger to farm workers.

Another major

physical hazard that farm workers encounter is heat stress.

They work long hours during the

high heat of the day and year without adequate shading, cool resting areas and even adequate rest

breaks.



Pesticide exposure among farm workers continues to be a major concern. A National Cancer

Institute Study found that farmers exposed to herbicides had a six-fold greater risk than non-

farmers of contracting various cancers. In California, reported pesticide poisonings among

traditional farm workers have risen an average of 14% a year since 1973 and doubled between

1975 and 1985.

Field workers suffer the highest risk of occupational illnesses in the state. An

estimated 1 million people are poisoned annually by pesticides, and many of these are farm

workers, whose poor access to healthcare makes recovery more difficult.



Pesticide exposure can affect brain and

cognitive development. Recent studies

have shown both neurodevelopment

problems associated with in utero or early

childhood exposures to some pesticides.

5, 6

In a 1998 publication, children living in

areas where pesticides were historically

used were shown to have trouble in simple

age-appropriate cognitive tasks like drawing

a person. Figure 2 compares five year-olds

in two areas of Mexico.

Similarly, a study

conducted in an agriculturally-dense area of

California found that farm worker children exposed to pesticides experienced decreased brain

function.

6, 8, 9

Even more recent studies suggest that farm worker children have lower IQs.

Though insecticides are designed to be lethal and neurotoxic to pests, research demonstrating the

toxicity of these pesticides to humans is just beginning to be accepted.

Figure 2. Drawings by Yaqui tribal children in Sonora, Mexico

located in the foothill region where pesticides are not applied and

in the valley region where pesticides have been historically

applied. (Guilette et al. 1998)

Eating sustainably

Farm Workers Emory University

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Future steps. Despite the unfavorable conditions facing farm workers today, progress is being

made in baby steps. For example, several states such as Washington, Oregon and California

have been proactive in providing better farm worker protection with special considerations given

to heat stress protection, better wages and working conditions, and frequent health monitoring.

Furthermore, the US EPA is currently evaluating ways to ensure better compliance with existing

standards. The cost of fair wages and improved working conditions has been shown by the

Coalition of Immokalee Workers in Florida to be only a few extra pennies a pound of the cost of

tomatoes.

As eloquently stated in the newly-released Inventory of Farmworker Issues and

Protections in the United States: “We envision a day when the US public will relate to “fair and

safe farm labor” with the same familiarity as they now do to the phrases “organic,” “locally

grown,” “animal welfare,” “food safety” and “fair trade.”

Dana Boyd Barr for the Sustainable Food Committee, December 2011.

_______________

1. Ames, R.G., et al., Protecting agricultural applicators from over-exposure to cholinesterase-

inhibiting pesticides: perspectives from the California programme. J Soc Occup Med, 1989.

39(3): p. 85-92.

2. United Farmworkers. Inventory of Farmworker Issues and Protections in the United States. 2001

[cited 2011 9/8]; Available from: http:\\bamco.com\page\114\farmworker-inventory.htm.

3. National Agricultural Worker Survey 2005-2009. Available from:

http://www.doleta.gov/agworker/naws.cfm.

4. Davis, M., Farm Labor in California: Then and Now. 2001, Center for Comparative Immigration

Studies, San Diego, CA.

5. Rauh, V.A., et al., Impact of prenatal chlorpyrifos exposure on neurodevelopment in the first 3

years of life among inner-city children. Pediatrics, 2006. 118(6): p. e1845-59.

6. Young, J.G., et al., Association between in utero organophosphate pesticide exposure and

abnormal reflexes in neonates. Neurotoxicology, 2005. 26(2): p. 199-209.

7. Guillette, E.A., et al., An anthropological approach to the evaluation of preschool children

exposed to pesticides in Mexico. Environ Health Perspect, 1998. 106(6): p. 347-53.

8. Bouchard, M.F., et al., Prenatal exposure to organophosphate pesticides and IQ in 7-year old

children. Environ Health Perspect, 2011.

9. Marks, A.R., et al., Organophosphate pesticide exposure and attention in young Mexican-

American children: the CHAMACOS study. Environ Health Perspect. 118(12): p. 1768-74.

10. Coalition of Immokalee Workers. 2011; Available from: http://www.ciw-online.org/.

Eating sustainably

Fair Trade Emory University

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Fair Trade: What is fair trade and why should we care about it?

The Fair Trade labeling system aims to connect producers with consumers in a relationship that

supports fair returns to farmers and local-level democracy, while responding to supply and

demand.

Fair Trade standards encourage sustainable farming practices, discourage the use of

child labor, and increase the share of revenue that flows to farmers. Fair Trade certified products

available in some Atlanta locations include coffee, tea, chocolate, sugar, bananas and cut

flowers. When buying Fair Trade coffee, a consumer contributes to healthier ecosystems and

communities in faraway countries, for only pennies of additional cost. The cost of beans in a cup

of Café Campesino, for example, averages $.33 a cup, compared to an average of $.30 a cup for

conventional coffee.

Background

The Fair Trade slogan, “trade not aid,” signals a desire to use the market to replace foreign aid to

achieve progress toward economic, social, and environmental sustainability in developing

countries. Fair Trade emerged in the U.S. and Europe in the 1940s to support economic

development among low-income producers through direct trade relations and combined higher

prices than the conventional market with producer loans and marketing help. The movement

began to pick up speed after the International Coffee Agreement collapsed in 1989 and the price

of coffee fell drastically. Fair Trade expanded in the United States in the 1990s with support

from religious groups and universities.

Because of the power of international traders, accords, and weather, prices of commodities in the

conventional market can drop below costs of production. Impoverished growers may then be

forced to sell land, move to cities in search of work, or migrate internationally. An important

component of the influx of Central American immigration to the U.S. has been the low price of

coffee since the collapse of the international agreement, as well as new plantings in Asia which

caused a glut of supply. Fair Trade seeks to rebalance the terms of trade to support both

producers and buyers in a system of mutual benefit.

Key Benefits to farmers: Because each crop is integrated into the Fair Trade system a little

differently, the description below will focus on coffee.

Higher Prices: Fair Trade coffee producers are guaranteed at least five cents per pound above

the conventional market price (and in some years as much as eighty cents), plus an additional

twenty cents for organic certification. Farmers must be organized into a democratically-elected

cooperative, and the cooperative also receives an additional “social premium” to be used for

community projects, such as building schools and clinics, improving roads, and developing new

craft industries that particularly benefit women. Removal of middle traders places more of the

crop’s value into the hands of farmers.

Research in many countries around the world has shown

that Fair Trade cooperatives secure a higher income for farming families, which in turn supports

more education, better housing, and a better diet.

Higher prices can support stable livelihoods,

safeguarding family land, farming traditions, and meaningful ways of life.

Access to Credit: Another benefit of Fair Trade is that roasters provide annual loans to each

cooperative to cover part of production costs up front. This much-needed credit prevents farmers

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Fair Trade Emory University

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from turning to local moneylenders and paying high interest rates to buy fertilizer or pay harvest

help.

Environmental Standards: Fair Trade includes a number of environmental production standards,

including reduced use of pesticides. Many Fair Trade cooperatives also carry organic

certification.

Third-Party Certification: TransFair USA (recently renamed as “Fair Trade USA”) is one of

twenty international certifying agencies that set and certify Fair Trade standards (see

www.transfairusa.org and www.flo.org). This seal provides a neutral third party verification of

claims.

Ethical Consumption: When buying Fair Trade products, consumers show support for producers

and for an ethically-organized system of trade that supports fair wages and working conditions.

Recent Issues

The international Fair Trade movement has experienced some struggles in recent years. In the

beginning of the movement, companies using the Fair Trade label offered 100% Fair Trade

product. With the decision in 2000 to allow Starbucks and other large corporations to use the

Fair Trade label, this requirement was relaxed, and Fair Trade may make up less than 10% of

their total coffee purchases. In addition, the price premium given to Fair Trade cooperatives has

not kept up with inflation over the last 15 years, nor have U.S. corporations been subject to

review of practices that producer cooperatives experience. In response, some small companies

have dropped Fair Trade certification and are trying other avenues of inserting ethical concerns

into trade relations. One example is “direct trade” which opts out of certification and avoids

middle traders, but cannot offer third party verification of claims. Recently, a group of

committed roasters was successful in gaining a small increase in the international Fair Trade

price premium and is pressing the certifying organizations to keep to their original principles. In

addition, Fair Trade standards are now being developed for domestic U.S. products, to extend

these concerns to a larger range of commodities. The Fair Trade label continues to provide one

of the few third-party-verified products that support a social justice component of sustainability.

Emory’s Commitment

Offering Fair Trade-certified foods is one of the ways Emory University’s Sustainable Food

Initiative seeks to meet its goal of serving 75% of the food on campus and in hospitals from

locally or sustainably grown sources by the year 2015. By 2010, all coffee and tea provided by

Emory Dining locations on campus became Fair Trade certified. Some Fair Trade sugar and

other products are also available on campus.

Shira Weintraub, Raghvi Anand, and Kylie McKenzie for the Sustainable Food Committee at

Emory University

Simon, Bryant. 2009. Everything but the Coffee: Learning about America from Starbucks. Berkeley: University of

California Press, p. 208.



Eating sustainably

Fair Trade Emory University

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Based on an average of seven conventional coffee prices at Emory Kroger (four mid-range arabica and gourmet

brands and three low-price brands) and two Café Campesino prices, February, 2011. An ounce of ground coffee is

calculated to produce two eight-ounce cups of brewed coffee.

Luttinger, Nina, and Gregory Dicum. 2006. The Coffee Book: Anatomy of an Industry from Crop to the Last Drop.

New York: The New Press.

Jaffee, Daniel 2007. Brewing Justice: Fair Trade Coffee, Sustainability, and Survival. Berkeley: University of

California.

Grimes, Kimberly M. 2005. “Changing the Rules of Trade with Global Partnerships: The Fair Trade Movement.”

Social

Movements: An Anthropological Reader. June Nash, ed. Pp.237-248. NY: Wiley-Blackwell. Jaffee (2007) and

Lyon, Sarah M. 2011 Coffee and Community: Maya Farmers and Fair Trade Markets. University Press of

Colorado.